Marxs Term For Capitalist - 1723 Words

Bourgeoisie: Page 10; Marx’s term for capitalist, those who own the means of production. The food production companies have accentually bought the government. If they come up with a plan to produce more food, no matter how harmful it may be to the consumer, the government will not step in to protect the citizen of Americans. As the bourgeoisie owns the industry, this fact has been proven within the video of Food Inc. What is astonishing is that a company was actually able to get a patent on life. How can a company be allowed to monopolize an entire industry? That is depriving people of their basic human right of life, to eat healthy food, food that has not been modified by harmful hormones or genetics. Several of the food production companies give jobs to illegal immigrants and once their services are no longer needed, then the heads of these companies call immigration to have them arrested and deported back to their home country. This in turn saves the company money because they do not have to pay out anything for unemployment wages for laying the employees off f or a period of time. The food industry has really become the bourgeoisie of this century. Proletariat: Page 10: Marx’s term for the exploited class, the mass of workers who do not have the means of production. In this case, this class of workers is the farmers and the people who work in the food production plant. The farmers are forced to purchase seed from a company, which sells nothing expect GMO seed.Show MoreRelatedWhat Does Marx Mean by Alienation? Do You Find His Account Convincing?1466 Words   |  6 Pagesaccount convincing? To begin with I am going to take the definition of alienation from Microsofts Encarta (http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary), to give a basic outline of alienation and then I will discuss Marxs alienation and then later on in the investigation I will see how similar Marxs application of alienation is. 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Giroux claims that the contemporary education system discourages the notion of true learning and critical thinking, and is instead a mere avenueRead MoreEssay about Karl Marx and a Capitalist Society764 Words   |  4 PagesKarl Marx and a Capitalist Society Through out history money, wealth and capital have dictated a way of life to the masses. Wealth dictated the lives that the rich lived and the lives of the poor that worked for and surrounded them. In some cultures your class could never be escaped in life, you had to wait for your next incarnation, while in other cultures the idea of wealth transcended a life and allowed for growth from one class to another. This is the reality of a capitalist society that wasRead More Karl Marx Essay1742 Words   |  7 Pageswould have to be abolished to fully reach its full potential as a classless communist society. (Augusto Zimmermann, 2009). 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The Sustainability Revolution - 1666 Words

â€Å"The sustainability revolution is nothing less than a rethinking and remaking of our role in the natural world. Revolution is far reaching and is having a profound impact shaping everything from the places we live and work to the foods we eat and the endeavors we pursue as individuals and as communities (Edwards, 2005).† This author views corporate social responsibility as the guiding light for the sustainability revolution. This revolution includes all the ways that substantiality and corporate social responsibility intertwine. This revolution includes changes to community, commerce, natural resources, and the biosphere. The core of contemporary sustainability includes ecology/environment, economy/employment, and equity/equality. The Corporate Social Responsibility associated with business and the environment seems self-explanatory and rather common. Many businesses this day in age are working to improve their surrounding communities as well as reduce their dependence on natural resources. In addition, they are trying to reduce the emissions associated with the manufacturing of their products. Long term viability in areas such as agriculture, resource extraction, transportation, manufacturing, and buildings are key to the future of sustainable business and the sustainability of this planet. Andrew Edwards says that â€Å"in contemporary sustainability it is important to recognize the importance of providing secure long term employment without jeopardizing the health of theShow MoreRelatedSustainability Revolution : Earth, The Plant We Call Home1537 Words   |  7 PagesSustainability Revolution: Earth, the plant we call home, is a complex system made of interdependent parts and pieces of life that are constantly changing. Earth’s planetary system has maintained a balance of dynamic equilibrium—it has been sustainable— since its beginnings about 4.5 billion years ago. This balance, however, has been progressively disrupted by us—humans— especially during the last few decades. Mother Nature has provided us with natural resources and the habitat for all species toRead MoreIs Sustainability A Sustainable Society?1402 Words   |  6 Pagesdefined sustainability as â€Å"development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs† [1]. Many authors and activists have given their own interpretation of what sustainability means to all of us. In a sense, sustainability refers to the processes and practices that help sustain human life on planet Earth, but the concept of sustainability is broad and applies to many disciplines. 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The change in resources will enhance both current and future generations to meet human needs. Sustainability is an important part that is presented in Ford’s overall image. At Ford, sustainability is a business model that involves long

Juvenile Delinquency Contributing Factors Current Essay Example For Students

Juvenile Delinquency Contributing Factors Current Essay Research and Intervention Juvenile delinquency is a complex social problem that significantly impacts all members and processes of a social structure. Delinquency refers to a set of behaviors that are not in line with the collective practices and/or ethics of the dominant social group. Essentially, these behaviors deviate from societal norms and more specifically they violate established criminal codes and laws. Juvenile delinquency incorporates not only general criminal activity but conduct that is only unlawful for youths such as running away from home and skipping school. Current research into this difficult and pressing issue reflects a vast range of theories about, and predictors of delinquency as well as a multitude of strategies to control and reduce overall delinquency. The consensus among practitioners and researchers however maintains that juvenile delinquency is a dynamic, multifaceted problem with numerous potentially causal factors. Subsequently, investigators and professionals suggest that treatment procedures must focus on not only the immediate issue of the offenders deviant behavior but on every element within the context of that behavior as well, including for example, family relations and social support services/networks. Conventional practice has long associated early preventive measures with positive delinquency reduction results. In particular, timely recognition of at-risk youth and correction of ineffective or minimally effective parenting techniques are critical to the prevention of future delinquency (Lundman, 1993). Numerous risk factors have been identified as indicators or predictors of juvenile delinquency and those factors represent dysfunction at several levels, specifically within the structure of the offenders family. Some of these factors include conflict within the family, a lack of adequate supervision and/or rules, a distinct lack of parent-child attachment, instability, poor home life quality, parental expectations, out-of-home placements and inconsistent discipline (Shumaker, 1997). Social service professionals who frequently come into contact with children must be especially vigilant in order to detect the presence of any of the possibly contributory conditions mentioned above and to refer families to appropriate sources of assistance as early as possible. Generally speaking, the relationship between family conflict and delinquency is significant. There are many types of family conflict but the absence of communication and the inability to solve problems are two of the most fundamental forms relative to future delinquency. The nature of these conflicts is cyclical in that communication and problem-solving breakdowns increase the incidences of delinquency which in turn increase the stress and conflict levels within the family leading to more instances of deviant behavior (Smith Stern, 1997). Educators, clinicians and other professionals who provide services for children should carefully evaluate reports from children regarding such things as parental fighting, abuse and/or neglect so that they may obviously address those immediate concerns but also assess the possible need for preventive intervention. Structure is very important in the life of a developing child. Most of that necessary structure is provided by the parents/family. Rules or guidelines are inherently part of that structure and careful parental supervision is essential to the derivation and implementation of those rules. For example, children should always have to tell their parents where they are and whom theyre with. A parent should be diligent in his/her supervision to the extent that (s)he actually knows the whereabouts of his /her children at all times ( Shumaker, 1997). Service professionals should understand the relationship between lack of supervision/rules in the home and possible future criminal behavior among youths and should be solicitous in their observations. Parent-child attachment is also a key factor in the delinquency of a minor. Attachment refers to the process that bonds a child to a parent and is usually completed in infancy. It is generally held that children who are insecurely attached to their parents are more likely to commit crimes. However, there are some therapeutic techniques which can be employed to increase the strength of a relationship throughout childhood (Shumaker, 1997). Researchers suggest that social service workers should pay close attention to a child feeling unloved or unimportant as these feelings can be indicative of poor attachments and may lead to juvenile criminality. Delinquency can further be related to degrees of instability in an offenders life. Instability is generally characterized by stress, carrying out threats or promises (Patterson, 1986), frequent changes of residence/friends, dramatic changes in .

Women - Work and Family US Disability Law

Question: (1). Hochschild and Machung (2003) state, "In the two-job couple this trend moves even faster; working couples do less at home and buy more goods and services. A woman's skills at home are then perhaps also less valued" (p. 255). In a culture of store bought goods and services, is there a need for the housewife? Please support your answer using text material. (2). If you had enough money to live as comfortably as you'd like, would you prefer to work full-time, work part-time, do volunteer-type work, or work at home caring for the family? Explain your choice. (3a). Why does Hochschild and Machung (2003) compare the working wife to an "urbanizing peasant?" (3b). Is there a relationship between unequal wages and marriage; if so, how? (3c). Is there a relationship between unequal wages and the second shift; if so, how? (3d). Who does Hochschild and Machung (2003) state as being the "wealthiest" and "poorest" in backstage support, and why? (4). Please address this question posed by Powell (2003): Can a "positive" signal, such as the receipt of an advanced degree, counteract the "negative" signal of being female? That is, might an educated woman be regarded as "atypical" of her sex, and arouse less discrimination among prospective employers (Moe, 2003, p. 203). Use text material from this week to support your response. (5a). Discuss the laws prohibiting employment discrimination and the methods used in litigation to establish a legal finding of discrimination. (5b). Do you feel enough is being done to alleviate wage discrimination? Why or why not? (6a). In the "Balancing Work and Family" article, what are some ways in which current companies keep productivity growing while addressing family concerns? (6b). What types of company programs allow employees to have a life and still get ahead? (7a). What are some of the adaptive strategies discussed by Ezzedeen and Ritchey (2009) devised by executive women to advance their careers and enjoy a family? (7b). What are your thoughts and feelings on these strategies? Answer: 1. In present times, the lives of women are fast changing. The expansion of employment opportunities has created various avenues for women. Women have few children now as opposed to five to six in earlier times. Earlier it was men who identified with the premonition of manhood with having money in a manner they have never done before. Now, there has been a paradigm shift. It is women who are assuming the new basis of identity. Women have discovered that earning is important to them than it was to their mothers. This has given the rise of two-job couple spectrum wherein working couples do less at home and buy more goods and services. Certainly, there is a need of housewife who would take care of the kids and chores of the family along with the husband. On the other hand, feminism proposes that women should be given equal opportunities as men. Men should assist their spouses in domestic activities which would help the women in managing work outside the home (Hochschild Machung, 2012). 2. If I have ample money and would like to live comfortably as per my choice, I would like to be at home thereby caring for the family and avail work from home option. I subscribe to the philosophy of work in life and not being in a state of inaction. Thus work would be on my list of priorities, come what may. Since I may have a leeway of having enough money I may not prefer to work on a full-time basis. I would rather invest considerable time at home thereby caring for my family. There could not be a better option than work from the home scheme of things. This would enable me to be engaged in work in keeping with supporting the family in every possible need and addressing concerns. In fine, it may be said that hailing substantial money does not amount to being indolent and inactive. 3. In present circumstances, women have established a new basis of identity and authority. The factual reality is they are trying to get a firm footing in the employment domain. Similarly, peasants also strive to reap good returns for their grains. Thus the author has likened the condition of working women to that of urbanising peasants. There is indeed a strong linkage between unequal wage and marriage. Hofstede states that with the rise of feminism women are likely to be paid more compared to their male counterparts that may evoke psychological issues between the wife and husband. However, the reverse is also true with women being suppressed as their spouses get paid more. The experts have stressed that human behaviours are governed by factors like society and mental make-up. The patterns of society, culture may be deemed as being the wealthiest or for that matter poorest in the backdrop. Various theories reveal the existence of a relationship of social structures with the human behavior (Pedulla, 2014). 4. Various experts opine that advancement in education counteracts the negative signal of being female. The bivariate regression model elucidates that women having a considerable quantum of education are less likely to be discriminated among prospective employers. As per the results, the female is a construed as a dummy variable. The bivariate regression analysis that of wage over the dummy variable has two different categories namely, women and men offer a comparable measure relating to the standard difference between wages of men and women. While visualizing the relationship between another variable and wage, the link of wage and years of experience also deserves special mention. Similar to the bivariate regression investigation between gender and wage, the connection between wage and years of experience is anticipated. Thus it may be concluded that women who come with substantial years of education and work experience are not subjected to discriminatory motives among the prospecti ve employers. 5. The Federal Laws being effective in prohibition of job discrimination are laid below: Title seven of Civil Rights Act (1964) prohibits discrimination in employment based on race, origin, gender or religion. The Equal Pay Act (1963) provides safeguards for men and women who perform equal work in the same establishment. The US Disability Act (1990) prohibits employment discrimination against individuals or resources with disabilities in the state. The Civil Rights Act (1991) provides monetary damages in various cases of deliberate employment discrimination. The US Equal Employment Opportunity Commission or EEOC is at the helm which enforces all the laws above and litigation. The compliant body also takes care of equal employment opportunity in keeping with practices and policies (Emens, 2012). The various methods used in litigation to establish a legal finding of discrimination or resolving the discrimination charges are mainly mediation, settlement and conciliation. EEOC being the statutory body is effective in alleviation of wage discrimination ("Resolving a Charge", 2016). The expansion of federal along with state discrimination laws in keeping with the common law has been successful in providing individuals safeguards relating to employment issues. The federal authorities are ever vigilant in formation and application of the laws (Gould IV, 2013). 6. Nowadays, workers seek to strike a balance between work and family. This helps in balancing sufficient earnings with family time being stretched. Companies are striving to make arrangements so that the productivity does not take a backseat while the resource could fulfil family commitments. The effective ways of maintaining a prolific balance could be the following. Scheduling plan of work scrupulously. Communication about the companys policies about laid objectives. Usage of technology to the advantage of both employees and companies. Making good use of family time. In present times, organisations are undertaking various initiatives which aim to be beneficial for the resources as well as upholding the productivity at work. Work life balance is one such scheme which permits employees to manage multiple responsibilities at family without posing any threat to the productivity at work. Dependent care, wellness options, education and training opportunities, encouragement of fitness and hygiene standards are some of the popular models that organisation initiatives allow employees to have a life and still get ahead (Smith, 2016). 7. In the present parlance, women have expanded their career aspirations undeniably. To accentuate their careers, women have devised various strategies which are mentioned below. Getting as much of training and education possible. Prominence in social and online networking sites. Charting a diligent career growth plan. Networking with alumni and former coworkers. Self-promotional measures. Undertaking freelancing activities. Nurturing of talents which offer scope for career development. Leverage in interpersonal and communication skills. It is understandable that women are freethinkers and are willing to embark on what it takes to make advancement in their personal careers in keeping with healthy family life. Women are inherently assiduous and intuitive which makes it easier for them to plan accordingly. Furthermore, given the strategies being implemented appropriately, the society is likely to gain immensely by the contribution of women both in work and family, by and large (Stets Burke, 2014). References: Emens, E. (2012). Disabling Attitudes: US Disability Law and the ADA Amendments Act. American Journal of Comparative Law, 60(1), 205-234. Gould IV, W. B. (2013). A primer on American labor law. Cambridge University Press. Hochschild, A., Machung, A. (2012). The second shift: Working families and the revolution at home. Penguin. Pedulla, D. S. (2014). The Positive Consequences of Negative Stereotypes Race, Sexual Orientation, and the Job Application Process. Social Psychology Quarterly, 77(1), 75-94. Resolving a Charge. (2016). www.eeoc.gov. Retrieved 14 August 2016, from https://www.eeoc.gov/employers/resolving.cfm Smith, J. (2016). 8 Ways To Achieve Better Work-Life Balance. www.forbes.com. Retrieved 14 August 2016, from https://www.forbes.com/sites/jacquelynsmith/2013/04/18/8-ways-to-achieve-better-work-life-balance/#7d7e6bb63a25 Stets, J. E., Burke, P. J. (2014). Self-esteem and identities. Sociological Perspectives, 57(4), 409-433.

Humanism During The Renaissance Essays (1790 words) - Epistemology

Humanism during the Renaissance During the renaissance, there was a renewed interest in the arts, and the traditional views of society came into question. People began to explore the power of the human mind. A term often used to describe the increasing interest in the powers of the human mind is humanism. Generally, humanism stresses the individual's creative, reasoning, and aesthetic powers. However, during the Renaissance, individual ideas about humanism differed. Writers and philosophers of the Renaissance time period expressed their opinions about human nature and human's roles in the universe through their writings. Pico della Mirandola's "Oration on the dignity of man", which glorifies humanity and praises the human ability to reason, offers the opposing view to Shakespeare's Hamlet and Montaigne's essay "Man's presumption and Littleness" which both suggest that humans are no higher in the universal order of things than any other of God's creatures. Pico begins his essay by informing his readers that he knows where humans stand in the divine order of the world. Pico believes that humans were the last creatures created by God, and that God's purpose, in creating them, was to fulfill his desire for someone to appreciate the great wonders and beauties of his world: When the work was finished, the Craftsman kept wishing that there were someone to ponder the plan of so great a work... therefore... he finally took thought concerning the creation of man. (Mirandola 224) It is also Pico's belief that when Humans were created, they were given qualities both divine and earthly, and could become whatever they chose: We have made thee neither of heaven nor of earth, neither mortal nor immortal, so that with freedom of choice... thou mayest fashion thyself in whatever shape thou shalt prefer. (Mirandola 225) Pico's conclusion about human ranking among the divine order of things was that while some people were almost celestial, others were no better than animals, and that this great variance of character among the human population only served to increase their importance and uniqueness from all other of God's creatures. His essay, which praised human greatness and exalted the powers of humanity, was opposed by more negative views of humanity, as expressed in the works of Montaigne and Shakespeare. Montaigne's essay "Man's presumption and Littleness" belittles the greatness of man so much that he becomes no more than another beast among beasts, possibly even lower than some of God's other creatures. Montaigne cannot imagine why man believes himself so great: Is it possible to imagine anything so ridiculous as that this miserable and puny creature, who is not even master of himself... should call himself master and emperor of the universe, the least part of which is not in his power to understand, much less command? (Montaigne 1808) With this statement, Montaigne not only communicates his disbelief that man is great, but also his doubt that he can obtain any knowledge of the world around him. Montaigne goes to length to point out the faults and failures of humanity. Where Pico takes pains to explain the greatness of man, Montaigne does the same to prove his ?littleness' "Presumption is our natural and original malady." (Montaigne 1810) Speaking of animals and humans, he writes: This defect that hinders communication between them and us, why is it not just as much ours as theirs? ...We do not understand them any more than they do us. By this same reasoning, they may consider us beasts, as we consider them... we must notice the parity there is between us. (Montaigne 1811) In his writing, Montaigne not only suggests our likeness to other creatures, but goes even further, to suggest the superiority that most creatures have to us. We recognize easily enough... how much superiority animals have over us... by making Nature... accompany them and guide them... while us she abandons to chance and fortune... and denies us... the natural resourcefulness of the animals; so that their brutish stupidity surpasses... all that our divine intelligence can do. (Montaigne 1813) In the conclusion of his essay, Montaigne sums up his views about the divine order, and the place that humanity might occupy in that order. If it is true that he alone of all the animals has this freedom of imagination and this unruliness in thought that represents to him what is, what is not, what he wants, the false and the true, it is an advantage that is sold to him very dear...

Free Essays on The Struggle Within Huckleberry Finn

The Struggle within Huckelberry Finn Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is a novel about a boy’s struggle with his inner conscience in the Missouri of the 1800’s. Huckleberry Finn spends most of his time floating down the Mississippi River on a raft with a runaway slave named Jim. The novel illustrates Huck’s battle with his conscience over slavery, education, and society’s beliefs. Huck is a rebellious young boy who finds himself taking some responsibility and maturing throughout the novel. Although Mark Twain wrote Huckleberry Finn twenty years after the Civil War, America was still struggling with racism and the aftereffects of slavery; especially the South. Jim is a runaway slave and the companion of Huck Finn as they both travel down the river. According to the law, Jim is Miss Watson’s property, but according to Huck’s logic and fairness it seems â€Å"right† to help Jim. As Huck spends more time with Jim he stats seeing him as a friend instead of a slave or a fugitive on the run. An example of this is when Huck encounters a group of slave hunters and makes up a story in order to lure them away from Jim. But Jim remains at the mercy of every character in the novel, including Huck, as the letter that Huck nearly sent to Miss Watson shows the inner conflict that he is struggling with. Nonetheless Jim remains a loyal friend and he is actually the only adult who provides a positive example for Huck to follow. Huckleberry Finn has morally educated himself throughout the novel rather than intellectually. Most of the novel illustrates the maturation and development of Huck. He is a poor, uneducated orphan boy who does not trust the teachings that others try to install in him. When Huck meets Jim he starts to question the teachings he received especially regarding race and slavery. More than once Huck chooses to â€Å"go to hell† rather than following the rules and going along with what he has bee... Free Essays on The Struggle Within Huckleberry Finn Free Essays on The Struggle Within Huckleberry Finn The Struggle within Huckelberry Finn Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is a novel about a boy’s struggle with his inner conscience in the Missouri of the 1800’s. Huckleberry Finn spends most of his time floating down the Mississippi River on a raft with a runaway slave named Jim. The novel illustrates Huck’s battle with his conscience over slavery, education, and society’s beliefs. Huck is a rebellious young boy who finds himself taking some responsibility and maturing throughout the novel. Although Mark Twain wrote Huckleberry Finn twenty years after the Civil War, America was still struggling with racism and the aftereffects of slavery; especially the South. Jim is a runaway slave and the companion of Huck Finn as they both travel down the river. According to the law, Jim is Miss Watson’s property, but according to Huck’s logic and fairness it seems â€Å"right† to help Jim. As Huck spends more time with Jim he stats seeing him as a friend instead of a slave or a fugitive on the run. An example of this is when Huck encounters a group of slave hunters and makes up a story in order to lure them away from Jim. But Jim remains at the mercy of every character in the novel, including Huck, as the letter that Huck nearly sent to Miss Watson shows the inner conflict that he is struggling with. Nonetheless Jim remains a loyal friend and he is actually the only adult who provides a positive example for Huck to follow. Huckleberry Finn has morally educated himself throughout the novel rather than intellectually. Most of the novel illustrates the maturation and development of Huck. He is a poor, uneducated orphan boy who does not trust the teachings that others try to install in him. When Huck meets Jim he starts to question the teachings he received especially regarding race and slavery. More than once Huck chooses to â€Å"go to hell† rather than following the rules and going along with what he has bee...

Classroom Management and Discipline for a Diverse Student Population Research Paper

Classroom Management and Discipline for a Diverse Student Population - Research Paper Example Three diversities of learner needs have been considered. These diversities are in the areas of learner achievement levels, socio-cultural background of learners and health needs of learners. Reasons why it is important for the teacher to ensure that there is an environment to cater for diversities in all the three areas of learner needs have been elaborated. Again, the research suggests specific approaches to be used by teachers to ensure accommodation and adaptation for differences in all three areas of learner diversity. The research closes by examining how the teacher can also cater for different learner behaviours to foster discipline in the class. Three theories have been reviewed and corresponded to how they can solve three persistent classroom related undisciplined behaviours that a teacher encounters on a regular basis. The behaviours looked at are absenteeism, inattentiveness in class and bullying. Having the managerial skills to tackle all forms of learner behaviour is very important to ensure that the classroom lives up to a desired learning atmosphere and that all learners leave the classroom each day with fulfilled dreams of going to school. Overview Day in an out, the face of teaching as a profession keeps changing; becoming more and challenging to meet the changing learning needs of students. Years past, learning was seen as the responsibility of the student. The teacher was therefore seen as a conveyer of information for the student to learn – by whatever means the student could make himself understand what the teacher teaches. Because of this, teachers went about teaching in a whole-class approach, leaving the responsibility of understanding lessons to the student. In that era, examinations were put in place to test which students learnt what the teacher taught and which students did not learn. Today, that is no more. The teacher is now seen as part of the child’s learning process with the responsibility of ensuring that his teach ing meets the learning needs of the student. Today, the teacher is seen as a facilitator who is to ensure that the student understands his teaching – by whatever means the teacher could make himself understood. Examination has therefore become a test of which teacher could meet learning needs of students. In order to meet the individual needs of the classroom population, teachers are putting away whole-class teaching approaches for diversity approached. Teachers are now required to adopt diversity approach to meet the learning needs of all learners in the classroom. According to Crawley (2006), A â€Å"diversity approach aims to recognize, value and manage difference to enable all learners to contribute and realize their full potential.† It is the aim of this research paper therefore, to investigate into various learning theories to find out how they support the concept of diversity approach in classroom situations. This will be done by delving into what diversity is, areas of classroom experiences the teacher is likely to meet diversity and the importance of catering for diversity in the classroom. There shall then be analyzes of best practices for effective classroom management to minimize disruptive behavior and increase learning in the diverse

Linguistic features that distinguish regional and social varieties of Essay

Linguistic features that distinguish regional and social varieties of English - Essay Example These variations constitute the dialects of the people. Many factors have influenced to develop a standard form of language in all major speech communities. These in turn have been used as the official dialects of the communities. (The Columbia electronic encyclopedia,2006) The official dialect usually differs from the day to day language, it has some "officiality" in it which would contain certain standards of grammar, pronunciations etc. The standard English of England is derived from London English. A person is marked as cultivated in the United states which entails usage of standard grammar and pronunciation. Also the degree of politeness of a person is judged by the efficiency with which he or she speaks the standard language. Sometimes ordinary speech can be affected by the standard language. Hence some usages would tend to be incorrect such as "you was" in place of "you were" etc. Similarly "gotten" is accepted in United States but not in England. Similarly "Gotten" is accepted by the United States but not in England. Also the standard of linguistic variations are mainly because of vocabulary. Language changes have traditionally been treated as processes constrained by internal linguistic factors. According to this view, language contacts have b een perceived as disturbing factors. Therefore, explaining language change requires new analytical ways of modelling contact, in which both internal and external factors are closely investigated. Studying language-internal processes requires a fundamental knowledge of sociolinguistic, textual and regional factors, since all variation-based analytical and explanatory models of language change rely on the idea of a combined effect of all factors. Another important insight is to be able to connect the latest language changes with historical ones. Hence, the concept of grammaticalization offers a productive starting point for analyses of language changes that span several hundred years. Linguistics Linguistics is the study of language on a scientific basis. Linguistics can be theoretical and applied. Linguistics compares languages (comparative linguistics) and explores their histories, in order to find universal properties of language and to account for its development and origins (historical linguistics). Slightly separate from general linguistics are the sub-fields of phonology, which studies the role of sounds in particular languages, and phonetics, the study of how sounds are produced and perceived. Linguistics are widely used to understand the variations of languages. Regional variation in English Everyone speaks some form of regional dialect a variety of a language that differs in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary from those spoken in other regions. In this sense, a region implies a construct of social and historical facts as well as a geographic area. The shared linguistic features that make up a regional dialect include historical facts of migration and community experience, social facts of ethnic identity, and geographic facts of climate and terrain. Each regional dialect also includes a number of social dialects that reflect the age, education, social class, and ethnic identity of its speakers. In England various dialects are spoken region wise like Scottish gaelic , Irish

Amazon's Data Assurance Policies Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Amazon's Data Assurance Policies - Assignment Example Amazon’s customers receive immediate notification of whether the transaction has been successful.   This is done first immediately online, giving them an opportunity to keep a printed record as well as being stored in their account history, which is viewable online.   An electronic mail is also sent to the customer as a further notification and security measure.In a credit card transaction there are three stages to processing an order; namely, authentication of the cardholder, authorization for the transaction from the card issuer, and eventually settlement by the card issuer with Amazon.   Once the card issuer authorizes the transaction Amazon will send a confirmation to the customer.   In a successful credit card transaction for an existing customer the following information assurance policies are embedded within Amazon’s order processing system to safeguard customers, Amazon and the card issuer against the risk of identity theft:Amazon’s information as surance policies ensure that it does not collect any data from customers that is not required either to facilitate online transactions or to improve the quality of their experience whilst on the site.   For example, behind the scenes, Amazon ensures that all credit card numbers are transferred to and stored on a computer that is not accessible by network or modem or connected to the Internet.   This is done via a one-way interface.   This acts as another layer of protection from internal security risks as most staff will have no reason to access that server.Often the weakest point in the information assurance policy is interaction with the end-user, as an organization relies on the end-user to keep personal data accurate and safeguard against threats to the integrity of network systems to which they have access.   Amazon’s success here is mixed.   For example, customers are forced to keep their personal data accurate in order to be authenticated for purchasing from the site and Amazon does not collect personal data for any other reason.  

Background Of Language Learning Strategies English Language Essay

Background Of Language Learning Strategies English Language Essay This chapter covers the background of language learning strategies (LLS), the literature review including the definitions of key terms, classifications of LLS, the characteristics of LLS, the factors influencing the choice of LLS, evidences from previous research studies, the teachers role in LLS training, and theoretical concepts. 2.1 Background of Language Learning Strategies Research on language learning strategies has been conducted since the 1960s. Williams and Burden (1997, p. 149) stated that developments in cognitive psychology influenced much of research done on language learning strategies. In most of the research on language learning strategies, the principal concern has been on identifying what good language learners report they do to learn a second or foreign language, or, in some cases, are observed doing while learning a second or foreign language (Rubin Wenden 1987, p. 19). In 1966, Carton published The Method of Inference in Foreign Language Study, which was the initial effort to describe second language learners strategies. Then in 1971, Rubin began to conduct research regarding the strategies of successful learners and affirmed that, once acknowledged, such strategies could be made available to less successful learners. Rubin (1975) categorized strategies in terms of processes contributing directly or indirectly to language learning. Won g-Fillmore (1976), Tarone (1977), Naiman et al. (1978), Bialystok (1979), Cohen and Aphek (1981), Wenden (1982), Chamot and OMalley (1987), Politzer and McGroarty (1985), Conti and Kolsody (1997), and many others have also researched strategies employed by language learners during foreign language learning. 2.2 Literature Review 2.2.1 Defining concepts There have been many researchers trying to give a definition of the term language learning strategies. In the ancient Greek language, Strategy = strategia means generalship or the knack of fighting (Yi et al., 2007). In a more precise intelligence, strategy entails the most favourable supervision of troops, ships or aircraft in a designed operation while tactic is diverse, but is associated with sub-strategies which are the apparatus to accomplish the achievement of strategies. In non-military settings, the concept of strategy has been applied to the non-adversarial situations, where it has come to imply an arrangement, movement or an act is used for attaining a detailed purpose (Oxford, 1990). Oxford (1990) stated that strategies are particularly important for language learning because they are tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for developing communicative competence (p. 1). Because they are very noteworthy, learning strategies have been broadly employe d in the learning field. Many researchers have tried to give definitions to language learning strategy using different terms and different concepts of their own which will be discussed in the following paragraphs. Many researchers have conceptualised variously the term language learning strategies. Strategy originates from ancient Greek language strategia, which implies fighting capability (Yi et al., 2007). Regarding military field, strategy is fundamental to troop surveillance, while tactic is a tool to achieve the strategic goal. Apart from militarism, strategy has been defined as preparedness to accomplish a target (Oxford, 1990). To develop communicative competence, strategies are indispensable to language learning (Oxford, 1990, p.1). For this reason, most researchers have viewed language learning strategy diversely as follows. Schemeck (1988) defined strategy as the performance of a set of actions (tactics) for accomplishing some goal and learning strategy as a chain of actions for accomplishing learning (p. 5). Weinstein and Mayer (1986) explained that learning strategies are behaviours and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning and that are projected to persuade the learners encoding process (p. 315). More specifically, Rigney (1978) gave a definition of a learning strategy as cognitive strategy which is used to indicate operations and procedures that the student may use to acquire, retain, and retrieve different kinds of knowledge and performance (p. 165). Rubin (1975) defined strategies as the techniques or devices, which a learner may use to acquire knowledge (p. 43). Later, Rubin (1981) did a study to discover cognitive strategies in second language learning and got to know the distinction between direct and indirect language learning strategies. In 1987, Rubin proposed language learning strategies as strategies which lead to the improvement of the language structure which the learner builds and which shapes learning from then on (p. 23). She also recommended that language learning strategies consist of any set of operations, steps, plans, routines used by the learner to facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval and use of information (p. 19). Bialystock (1978) defined learning strategies as optional means for exploiting available information to improve competence in a second language (p. 71). He then identified four kinds of language learning strategies: (a) formal practising; (b) functional practising; (c) monitoring; and (d) inferencing. According to OMalley et al. (1985), language learning strategies have been broadly defined as any set of operations or steps used by a learner that will facilitate the acquisition, storage, retrieval or use of information (p. 23). In this study, they classified twenty-six strategies into three subgroups: metacognitive, cognitive, and social-affective. In the same way, Chamot (1987) said learning strategies are techniques, approaches, or deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate the learning and recall of both linguistic and content area information (p. 71). She proposed that some language learning strategies are observable, but some may not be. In a cognitive perspect ive, OMalley and Chamot thought of language learning strategies as the special thoughts or behaviours that individuals used to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information (p. 1). Nisbet (1986) gave another explanation of language learning strategies as always determined and goal-oriented, but perhaps not always accepted at a conscious or deliberate level. They can be long-lasting or so speedy in implementation that it is unfeasible for the learner to bring back, recall or even be responsive that one has utilized a strategy (p. 25). Oxford and Crookall (1989) defined language learning strategies as steps taken by the learner to aid the acquisition, storage, and retrieval of information (p. 404). They noted that strategies may be used consciously but they can also become habitual and automatic with practice. Similarly, Oxford (1990) claimed that learning strategies are steps taken by students to enhance their own learning (p. 1), and she said they were specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations (p. 8). Scrella Oxford (1992) found that learnin g strategies were specific actions, behaviours, steps, or techniques-such as seeking out conversation partners, or giving oneself encouragement to tackle a difficult language task-used by students to enhance their own learning (p. 63). MacIntyre (1994) argued that the term strategy implied active planning in pursuit of some goal, which was not something that would automatically occur. He emphasised the learners deliberate action of language learning strategies. He provided a different perspective of defining language learning strategies as the actions chosen by language students that are intended to facilitate language acquisition and communication (p. 190). The definition focuses more on learners intention and choice in using language learning strategies. In 1999, Nunan gave the definition of learning strategies as mental and communicative procedures learners use in order to learn and use language (p. 171). Four researchers, Chamot, Barnhadt, El-Dinary Rubbins (1999), defined learning strategies as the thoughts and actions engaged in, consciously or not, to learn new information (p. 1). Lastly, Hall (2001) referred learning strategies to goal-directed actions that were used by learners to mediate their own learni ng (p. 92). Researchers have recognized and illustrated language learning strategies which language learners use when they process new information and perform responsibilities (Hismanoglu, 2000). In the subsequent section, how different researchers have classified language learning strategies will be shortly summarized. Language learners should know exactly the strategies to be used in order to improve their achievement. Cohen, Weaver, Li (1996) argued that: Strategies for language learning and language use have been receiving ever-growing attention in the areas of foreign language teaching and learning (Oxford 1990, Cohen 1990, OMalley Chamot 1990, Wenden 1991, Brown 1991, Rubin Thompson 1994, Mendelsohn 1994, Mc Donough 1995). It is fair to say that language educators in many different contexts have been seeking ways to help students become more successful in their efforts to learn and communicate in foreign languages. The application of foreign language learning and use strategies is viewed as one vehicle for promoting greater success. A strategy is considered to be effective if it provides positive support to the students in their attempts to learn or use the foreign language. (p. 3) The Qualifications and Curriculum Development Agency (2009) defines successful learners as: people who own essential literate learning skills, numeracy and information and technology of communication. people who have good sense of creativity, are resourceful in identifying and problem solving. people who process information, reason, question and carry out evaluation by themselves. people who communicate in many means. people who understand how they learn and learn from their mistakes. people who are able to learn individually and work in groups. people who have world knowledge. people who enjoy learning and are motivated to achieve the best they can now and in the future. 2.2.2 Taxonomy of Language Learning Strategies Since the 1960s, the research of language learning strategies has been conducted by many language researchers (Wenden Rubin, 1987; OMalley et al., 1985; Oxford, 1990; Stern, 1992; Ellis, 1994). Most of these attempts to categorize language learning strategies are a sign of more or less the same classifications of language learning strategies without any fundamental changes. As below, OMalleys (1985), Rubins (1987), Sterns (1992), and Oxfords (1990) taxonomies of language learning strategies will be described: 2.2.2.1 OMalleys (1985) Classification of Language Learning Strategies OMalley et al. (1985, pp. 582-584) divide language learning strategies into three main subcategories: Metacognitive Strategies Cognitive Strategies Socioaffective Strategies A. Metacognitive Strategies It can be stated that metacognitive is a term to express executive function, strategies which require planning for learning, thinking about the learning process as it is taking place, monitoring of ones production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity is complete. Among the main metacognitive strategies, it is possible to include advance organizers, directed attention, selective attention, self-management, functional planning, self-monitoring, delayed production, self-evaluation. B. Cognitive Strategies Cognitive strategies are more limited to specific learning tasks and they involve more direct manipulation of the learning material itself. Repetition, resourcing, translation, grouping, note-taking, deduction, recombination, imaginary, auditory representation, key word, contextualization, elaboration, transfer, influencing are among the most important cognitive strategies. C. Socioaffective Strategies As to the socioaffective strategies, it can be stated that they are related with social-mediating activity and transacting with others. Cooperation and questioning for clarification are the main socioaffective strategies (Brown, 1987, pp. 93-94). 2.2.2.2 Rubins (1987) Classification of Language Learning Strategies Rubin, who pioneered much of the work in the field of strategies, makes the distinction between strategies contributing directly to learning and those contributing indirectly to learning. According to Rubin (1987), there are three types of strategies used by learners that contribute directly or indirectly to language learning. These are: Learning Strategies Communication Strategies Social Strategies A. Learning Strategies They are of two main types, being the strategies contributing directly to the development of the language system constructed by the learner: Cognitive Learning Strategies Metacognitive Learning Strategies A.1 Cognitive Learning Strategies They refer to the steps or operations used in learning or problem-solving that requires direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning materials. Rubin identified six main cognitive learning strategies contributing directly to language learning: Clarification/Verification Guessing/Inductive Inferencing Deductive Reasoning Practice Memorization Monitoring A.2 Metacognitive Learning Strategies These strategies are used to oversee, regulate or self-direct language learning. They involve various processes as planning, prioritizing, setting goals, and self-management. B. Communication Strategies They are less directly related to language learning since their focus is on the process of participating in a conversation and getting meaning or clarifying what the speaker intended. Communication strategies are used by speakers when faced with some difficulty due to the fact that their communication ends outrun their communication means or when confronted with misunderstanding by a co-speaker. C. Social Strategies Social strategies are those activities learners engage in which afford them opportunities to be exposed to and practice their knowledge. Although these strategies provide exposure to the target language, they contribute indirectly to learning since they do not lead directly to the obtaining, storing, retrieving, and using of language (Rubin Wenden, 1987, pp. 23-27). 2.2.2.3 Sterns (1992) Classification of Language Learning Strategies According to Stern (1992, pp. 262-266), there are five main language learning strategies as follows: Management and Planning Strategies Cognitive Strategies Communicative-Experiential Strategies Interpersonal Strategies Affective Strategies A. Management and Planning Strategies These strategies are related to the learners intention to direct his own learning. A learner can take charge of the development of his own programme when he is helped by a teacher whose role is that of an adviser and resource person. This is to say that the learner must decide what commitment to make to language learning set himself reasonable goals decide on an appropriate methodology, select appropriate resources, and monitor progress, evaluate his achievement in the light of previously determined goals and expectations (Stern, 1992, p. 263). B. Cognitive Strategies They are steps or operations used in learning or problem solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning materials. In the following, some of the cognitive strategies are exhibited: Clarification/Verification Guessing/Inductive Inferencing Deductive Reasoning Practice Memorization Monitoring C. Communicative-Experiential Strategies Communication strategies, such as circumlocution, gesturing, paraphrase, or asking for repetition and explanation are techniques used by learners so as to keep a conversation going. The purpose of using these techniques is to avoid interrupting the flow of communication (Stern, 1992, p. 265). D. Interpersonal Strategies They should monitor their own development and evaluate their own performance. Learners should contact with native speakers and cooperate with them. Learners must become acquainted with the target culture (Stern, 1992, pp. 265-266). E. Affective Strategies It is evident that good language learners employ distinct affective strategies. Language learning can be frustrating in some cases. In some cases, the feeling of strangeness can be evoked by the foreign language. In some cases, L2 learners may have negative feelings about native speakers of L2. Good language learners are more or less conscious of these emotional problems. Good language learners try to create associations of positive affect towards the foreign language and its speakers as well as towards the learning activities involved. Learning training can help students to face up the emotional difficulties and to overcome them by drawing attention to the potential frustrations or pointing them out as they arise (Stern, 1992, p. 266). 2.2.2.4 Oxfords (1990) Classification of Language Learning Strategies Oxford (1990, p. 9) sees the aim of language learning strategies as being oriented towards the development of communicative competence. Oxford divides language learning strategies into two main classes, direct and indirect, which are further subdivided into six groups (cognitive, memory, and compensation under the direct; metacognitive, affective, and social under the indirect class) (see Figure 1). Each of six groups shown above has some more concrete strategies, as shown in Table 1 and Table 2. Some language learning strategies which relate with learning directly are called direct strategies. All direct strategies require mental processing of the target language, but the three groups of direct strategies (cognitive, memory and compensation) do this processing differently and for different process (Oxford, 1990). Cognitive strategies, such as practising or analysing, enable learners to understand and produce new language by many different means. Memory strategies, such as grouping or using imaginary, have highly specific functions. They help students store and retrieve new information. Compensation strategies, like guessing or using synonyms, allow learners to use the language despite their often large gaps in knowledge. Other language learning strategies are called indirect strategies because they support and manage language learning without, in many instances, directly involving the target language (Oxford, 1990). Indirect strategies are divided into metacognitive, affective and social. Metacognitive strategies allow learners to control their own cognition; that is, learners can coordinate their own learning processes by using study habits such as centering, arranging, planning and evaluating. Affective strategies help regulate emotions, motivations and attitudes. Social strategies help students to learn through interaction with others. Indirect strategies are useful in virtually all language learning situations and are applicable to all four language skills: listening, reading, speaking and writing. 2.2.3 Characteristics of Language Learning Strategies Clouston (1997) maintains that the terminology is given differently by researchers, some use the terms learner strategies (Wendin Rubin, 1987), others learning strategies (OMalley Chamot, 1990; Chamot OMalley, 1994), and others still use language learning strategies (Oxford, 1990a, 1996), but there are a number of fundamental characteristics in the commonly acknowledged analysis of LLS. First, learners generate LLS which are steps taken by learners of the language. Second, LLS improve language learning and facilitate enlarge language competency, as feedback in the learners skills in listening, speaking, reading or writing the L2 or FL. Third, LLS might be able to be seen (behaviours, steps, techniques, etc.) or unseen (thoughts, mental processes). Four, LLS engage information and memory (vocabulary knowledge, grammar rules, etc.). Reading the LLS literature, additional aspects of LLS are less consistently acknowledged. Oxford (1990a) and others such as Wenden and Rubin (1987) distinguish an aspiration for control and independence of learning on the part of the learner all the way through LLS. Cohen (1990) persists that only mindful strategies are LLS, and that there must be a selection about the part of the learner. Strategy transferring from one language or language skill to another is an associated purpose of LLS, as Pearson (1988) and Skehan (1989) have argued. In her teacher-oriented text, Oxford sums up her opinion of LLS by citing twelve vital qualities. Additionally, she states that LLS: let learners become more self-directed enlarge the responsibilities of language teachers are problem-oriented include many points of view, not just the cognitive can be educated are changeable are manipulated by a wide range of factors (Oxford, 1990a, p. 9) 2.2.4 Factors Influencing Strategy Choice There are several factors which affect the second language learner with regard to types of strategies she or he chooses to use. Oxford (1994) concluded available research on how the

Oedipus :: essays research papers

In ancient Greece, the people believed that the gods ruled their lives and controlled their destiny. Their emphasis on fate was shown in their plays. This stands true to Oedipus, he could not c0ontrol his fate. Fate kept Oedipus alive through a murder attempt and to kill his father, and to marry his mother. When Oedipus was born his father was so afraid of the prophecy that he gave his son away to be killed. The will of the gods protected Oedipus and found two people to raise him. If the gods didn’t control the lives of these people, Oedipus would surely be dead. Fate kept him alive to fulfill his prophecy. Oedipus was put in a situation where he couldn’t protect himself, but was still able to overcome it. Oedipus is now older and leaves the people whom he thinks is his parents. While traveling he runs into a stranger. He gets into an argument with this stranger and kills him. The stranger turned out to be the king, and also his father. With the king away a sphinx shows up and causes mischief. Oedipus answers the riddle correctly and with it the sphinx leaves. Because of this Oedipus is given the throne. Fate has kept him alive and given him the chance to kill his father and overtake the thrown. Now that he is king, he meets the old queen and falls madly in love with her. He marries her and he has two children, who in all reality are actually his half sisters. Oedipus has no way of knowing that his wife is actually his mother. Just when it had seemed to Oedipus his life was becoming fulfilled, he runs into a blind prophet who explains why the city is having such problems. Slowly but surely Oedipus’ fate comes back to haunt him. It begins with the burning question of, why is the city is undergoing such terrible plagues? The whole town seems to be under a curse from the gods and Oedipus wants to know why.

Adam Smith and Karl Marx Essay

Adam Smith and Karl Marx Modern political economic theory and philosophy can be greatly attributed to the works of two men who seemingly held polar opposite views on the subject. Adam Smith, a Scottish philosopher, published his most well known work An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations in 1776 and is most often associated with the ideas and principles of the political economic system known as Capitalism. At the other end of the spectrum is Karl Marx; the German philosopher most often associated with Communism and the author (or co-author) of The Communist Manifesto. This paper seeks to discuss the core differences in their respective political economic philosophies with regards to what economic value is and what the role of government should be in their versions of political economy. This will conclude with the argument that while Smith's work had laid the foundation for modern economic philosophy, it was Marx who would ultimately leave the most significant impression upon the world with his revolutionary ideas. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (commonly abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations) is considered to be the first full treatment on the study of Economics. This work essentially lays the foundation for the economic system known as Capitalism. Interestingly enough, Capitalism was a term first brought into the public debate, somewhat pejoratively, by Karl Marx himself in describing a â€Å"capitalist† as a private owner of capital or the means or production. (â€Å"Capitalism† (Wikipedia), 2008). A consensus definition of this idea is an economic system based on private individual ownership of property in which the distribution of goods is determined freely by competing market forces and investments are made by individuals. (â€Å"Capitalism† (Merriam-Webster), 2008). In a Capitalist society, individuals are free to own property and invest their capital in the pursuit of profit with relatively limited influence or barriers from the government. The Wealth of Nations was organized into five books of several chapters each. The first two books examine the fundamentals of the market system and include explanations relating to the role of labor, the nature of capital and markets, and the motives people have for entering into the market system. The third book is mostly an historical examination of the economics in ancient societies. The fourth book is the core of Smith's argument for the capitalist society and it in these chapters that Smith lays out the core arguments for the limited role of government that is required for long term economic success. The fifth book deals primarily with government spending, revenues and taxation. The Communist Manifesto was much more a call to action than it was a treatise on economics and is a much shorter work than Smith's The Wealth of Nations. Marx also published a very thorough (and denser) economic examination known as Das Kapital in 1867. The conclusions reached in that and other works would underpin the concepts found in The Communist Manifesto. It is not inaccurate to say that Communism is in many ways the opposite of Capitalism. In The Communist Manifesto, Marx and co-author Friedrich Engels listed 10 attributes of an ideal Communist society. The first one lays out the primary condition: â€Å"Abolition of property in land and application of all rents of land to public purposes. † (Marx & Engels, 2006, p. 32) This effectively describes state-ownership and control of all capital and the means of the production made for the benefit of all in a classless society. Communism espouses the idea that the economy should function for the greater good of all society and not merely act as a tool to enrich the ‘bourgeois† or ruling classes. As the title would indicate, The Communist Manifesto lays out the purpose and reasoning for the existence of the Communist party that was developing across Europe in that time. In the prologue, Marx and Engels state the books purpose: It is high time that Communists should openly, in the face of the whole world, publish their views, their aims, their tendencies, and meet this nursery tale of the Specter of Communism with a Manifesto of the party itself. Marx & Engels, 2006, p. 2) The chief disagreement between Capitalists and Communists is who or what is entitled to ownership and the means of production. In chapter one of the second book of The Wealth of Nations, Smith defined capital as the stock (read: assets or money) that a person does not immediately consume for which the owner expects to derive a f uture profit. (Smith, 1909) This of course implies that the individual has possession and ownership of the capital item in the first place. Marx bestows a social aspect upon what capital is in The Communist Manifesto. Marx stated that capital is a â€Å"collective product? nly by the united action of all members of society, can it be set in motion. Capital is therefore not a personal, it is a social power. † (Marx & Engels, 2006, p. 23) In other words, capital belongs to all of the people that are needed to not only produce it, but to provide a reason for its value. One thing that Marx and Smith seems to have agreed upon is something economists call the Labor Theory of Value. While they would ultimately come to different conclusions on the use of the value, the basic assumption is this theory is that value is ultimate derived in an object from the labor necessary to produce it. â€Å"Labor Theory†, 2008) In chapter 5 of book I of The Wealth of Nations, Smith argues tha t â€Å"the real price of everything? is the toil and trouble of acquiring it. † (Smith, 1909, p. 36) Smith distinguishes this from the nominal value of an item that can vary based on market forces; he holds that the real value is constant in relation to the labor that it used in its production. Smith argues in the following chapter that there are three components to the price of an item: the labor needed to produce it, the â€Å"rent of the land† or resources needed to make it, and the â€Å"profit of stock† that compensates the investor for risking his resources. In Das Kapital, Marx also recognizes the labor component of any item in the first chapter. He states that any commodity has a use-value and an exchange value that is derived from the labor needed to produce it. (Marx, 2000) Marx however viewed the â€Å"profit of stock† as the ability of the capitalist to exploit the wage laborers out of the surplus value of the things they create because of their control over the means of production. The role of government in relation to the economic system is a central theme of how ultimately successful the economic system would become. One of Smith's core arguments to the success of capitalism is summarized in his most famous metaphor of the â€Å"invisible hand† found in Chapter 2 of Book IV in The Wealth of Nations: By preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign industry, he intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention. Nor is it always the worse for the society that it was no part of it. By pursuing his own interest he frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it. (Smith, 1909, p. 351-352) Smith argued that in a fair and free market economic system, producers will act in their own self-interest to maximize their profits. As profits increased, competitors would come about seeking to obtain a share of the profits, and would thus drive down prices through this competition. The result was more efficiency and productivity that would lead to the long term benefit of all of society. He was against any government action that would serve to disrupt this natural balance such as trade restrictions, wage laws, and industry regulation. Smith essentially believed that the more the government stayed out of the way, the better off society would be as a whole. In The Communist Manifesto, Marx makes an argument for an entirely stateless society. â€Å"Political power† he states, â€Å"? is merely the organized power of one class for oppressing another. † (Marx & Engels, 2006, p. 3) A common theme of The Communist Manifesto is the struggle between different classes of society, to which Marx simplifies to a clash between the â€Å"bourgeois† and the â€Å"proletariats†. Marx argues that â€Å"The essential condition for the existence, and for the sway of the bourgeois class, is the formation and augmentation of capital; the condition for ca pital is wage-labor. † (Marx & Engels, 2006, p. 19) Marx held the belief that in a pure Communistic society, there would be no classes, and that the government would out of necessity dominate and control the means of production in the economy. The legacy and impact of Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations was felt throughout Europe shortly after its publication. In England in particular, the British prime ministers sought policies that were attributed to what they had learned in Smith's book including a new commercial treaty with France, customs reform, and a change in fiscal policy that resulted in lower debt and government spending. Government's throughout Europe also began to realize the fallacy of the artificial trade barriers erected between the different countries; so much so that they would prefer to trade with their American colonies more often than their own neighbors. West, 1990) Smith's greatest impact is perhaps the academic contribution to the study of economics. Before The Wealth of Nations, there really was nothing of the sort that so thoroughly examined the fundamentals of economics. Nearly every economist after Smith, including Karl Marx, would use The Wealth of Nations as a primary source and base their argument s off of Smith's suppositions. Marx's influence on the world however was far from an academic exercise. The violent revolution that Marx predicted would need to occur in order for the proletariats to overthrow the bourgeois did indeed occur in Russia during the â€Å"Red October† of 1917. The ruling aristocracy of Russia's Czarists came to an end at the hands of Vladimir Lenin's Bolsheviks. This would lead to the formation of the communist Soviet Union. During the revolution, the Bolsheviks seized all the private property around the country, gave control of all the factories to the government, nationalized all the banks, seized all of the Church's properties, and declared that they would not honor any foreign debts. Thus the first real attempt at Communism took the form of the Soviet Union; symbolized by the worker's sickle and hammer on the flag. â€Å"October Revolution†, 2008) The actions of the Soviet Union would go on to inspire many other Eastern countries to attempt their own versions of Communism; all consistent with the principles Marx envisioned in The Communist Manifesto. The resulting conflict of economic fundamentals between these Communist entities and the more Capitalist economies of Western Europe and the United States would spark conflict throu ghout much of the 20th century. References capitalism. (2008) In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia Retrieved December 17, 2008, from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Capitalism capitalism. (2008). In Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Retrieved December 17, 2008, from http://www. merriam-webster. com/dictionary/capitalism labor theory of value. (2008) In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia Retrieved December 17, 2008 from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Labor_theory Marx, K (2000) Das Kapital Gateway Edition, Washington, DC, Regnery Publishing, Inc Marx, K & Engels, F (2006) The Communist Manifesto, New York, Penguin Books October Revolution. 2008) In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia Retrieved December 17, 2008, from http http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/October_ Revolution Smith, A (1909) Harvard Classics: An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, New York, P F Collier and Son West, E (1990) Adam Smith's Revolution, Past and Present. Adam Smith's Legacy: His thought in our time. Retrieved December 17, 2008 from http://www. adamsmith . org/images/uploads/publications /ADAM_SMITH_Legacy. pdf

Film Summary - Dead Poets Society essays

Film Summary - Dead Poets Society essays Sometimes in life people can come along and touch our lives in unexpected ways. This was the case with Mr. Keating and the boys in the movie "Dead Poets Society". He taught the boys so many lessons that they would have never learned from any other teacher. By looking at scenes from the movie, and lines from the works of Ralph Waldo Emerson and Walt Whitman, we can see just how important the lessons were that Keating was trying to teach the boys. Mr. Keating reminded them to seize each day and cherish them dearly. From the very first day that Mr. Keating had walked into the classroom you could already see that he had an original method of teaching. He came into class whistling, and then proceeded to take the boys outside the classroom to read them a poem, and announced that they can call him 'Captain O' Captain'. His first important lesson was "Carpe Diem", which means seize the day. He also told them to "gather the roses while ye may", because one day you are going to die. He then took them to the showcase to show them pictures of former alumni who were once where they were standing, but they are now dead. He was trying to tell them that everyday opportunities await us and we must decide whether to take a chance, or play it safe. He encouraged them to take risks, for nothing is gained without them. This idea is related with something Ralph Waldo Emerson once said : "It was a high counsel that I once heard given to a young person 'always do what you are afraid to do'". Another great mind, Whitman, once said in the poem, "Song of Myself", "I celebrate myself, and sing myself." I think what they were all trying to say is that you have to love your self, and live for each and every moment while we still can. Besides "Carpe Diem", Keating also taught the boys to "walk their own way." One of the most important lessons that Keating taught the boys was to be an individual no matter what anyone else tells them. This took place in ...

Income and Wealth Distribution Essay Essays

Income and Wealth Distribution Essay Essays Income and Wealth Distribution Essay Essay Income and Wealth Distribution Essay Essay Globalisation refers to the process of increased integration between different countries and economies and the increased impact of international influences on all aspects of life and economic activity. Globalisation has been integrated into the Australian economy; it has embraced the global economy and pursued policies to integrate its economy with those of its region and around the world. China is now moving from a planned economy to an increasingly market base economy now being the world’s third largest economy with increasing globalisation. Strategies such as the open door policy, trade policy, microeconomic policies, welfare and the environment policy and the macro policies have directed China into becoming more Globalised; recent high growth performance has led to a rapid economic development. The Open door policy is a statement that reaffirmed the principle that all countries should have equal access to any Chinese port open to trade. In China it was adopted towards foreign trade and investment, with Special Economic Zones (SEZ’s) established in the southern and eastern coastal provinces of China. These zones attracted foreign investment and enterprises through a range of incentives. Trade in exports and important grew from 10% of GDP in 1978 to 36% in 1996. For China the importance of foreign capital lay in trade and access to overseas markets transfers of Western technology, and the receipt of management and marketing skills from MNC’s. China has introduced a ‘One child policy’ in order to sustain China’s population growth and improve China’s economic performance. In order to achieve growth in GDP, it must be greater than the population therefore they have to reduce the population to achieve this. Agricultural reforms between 1978 and 1994 involved the abandonment of the commune system and its replacement of the Household Responsibility System. This new system led to dramatic increases in food production and surplus income was invested in privately run own and village enterprises responsible for light manufacturing of industrial goods. China uses monetary and fiscal policies as counter cyclical tools designed to exploit economic opportunities or minimise risks to the economy. As China becomes more integrated in to the economy it becomes more vulnerable to external ‘shocks’ and movements in the international business cycle. The overall macro picture is one of the increasing strength in economic activity, and rising inflation as a consequence; keeping economic growth at 8%. The CPI increased 1. 5% in January 2010 and its forecast to increase a further 3% in 2010. Some commentators believe that this is not a concern because much of the increase in the CPI has been as a result of food price increases caused by poor weather in 2009. Macroeconomic tools must be used to boost domestic investment and consumption, as export seems weak as a result of the recession. The trade and investment policy was put in place to increase the exports and investment, as it is a major part of China’s economy. Export led policies have contributed strongly to development and living standards. Chinas exports in 2009 predictably suffered as the national’s large markets fell into recession. While this posed a significant challenge it gave china an opportunity to restructure. The sudden stall in economic growth was not caused by restrictive government policies but a result of insufficient growth models and unbalanced economic structure. An 11th five-year plan was implemented in 2005 to achieve a general trade balance and could either decrease exports or increase imports. China has sustained average rates of economic growth of between 6% and 8% for the past two decades. This rapid rate of economic growth has led to rapid resource use and environmental degradation. China is therefore experiencing sever environmental problems associated with resource depletion and environmental degradation. The Chinese government commissioned the OECD to conduct a study of the environment in 2007. This report found that unless pollution is controlled, by 2020 it would cause 600,000 premature deaths in urban areas and 20m cases of respiratory illness per year. The report also found that up to 7% of China’s annual GDP is lost because of pollution, and this could rise to 13% of GDP if stronger environmental laws are implemented and enforced. The Chinese government has begun to recognise and address the environmental problems that have emerged because of rapid economic growth and industrialisation. Targets have been set for pollution levels and there is a policy to move away from reliance of coal fired power generators to use of hydroelectric and nuclear power. A market has also been established for tradable emission permits, which gives firms an inventive to reduce their pollution levels by trading excess rights in a market. China’s impressive growth performance has not benefited all provinces equally. Large geographic disparities in income remain across provinces. There are two bases of differences. The first is the per capita incomes are higher in urban areas in the east and south of China compared to the rural areas in the north and south. The second is the per capita incomes are higher in the southern coastal provinces of China compared to the north, and in the eastern coastal provinces, compared to the western provinces. China is one of the few countries in the world performing well overall in the indicators for the Millennium Development Goals. Yet in recent decades, China has shown large disparities in economic and social outcomes between coastal and inland regions, a trend that reflects the differences between urban and rural areas. Coastal areas have consistently experiences faster economic growth because they benefit from their proximity to the Special Economic Zones such as Shanghai, where employment and income opportunities are greatest. The bulk of national income is concentrated in metropolitan and coastal regions as seen by the average growth of 13% five times the level of north-western regions.

Persuasive Memo Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Persuasive Memo - Research Paper Example After a lot of reflection and consultation, I feel the company should preserve the surroundings by ensuring that water released into the environment prior to manufacturing is fully treated, which is a low cost program for Boston Beers and will reduce on water pollution. The following is a discussion on how it will benefit the community and the company. Concerns in the Community Resources such as clean water and air are getting more elusive daily, both in the community we operate within and in the world over. In Boston, Massachusetts, one of the major problems faced is water pollution (USEPA, 2013). Some members of the public continue to raise concerns over the frequent pollution of their primary water sources, water that they use for drinking, domestic consumption and industrial uses, among other things (USEPA, 2013). Often, members of the public have articulated that unclean water infiltrates their water lines, causing the water supplied to be unusable, especially domestically. In a study conducted, it was discovered that on the pollution index, water pollution in the Boston area went as high as 35.71% (MassDep, 2012). The study was based on water collected from beaches, rivers and residential areas. The beach waters were voted most polluted owing to the quantity of chemical effluent discovered on testing the samples collected from them (NRDC, n.d.). Apart from chemicals, the waters generally consisted of other wastes such as plastics and sewage. This has raised major concerns over the measures taken by the relevant parties in ensuring access to clean and usable water in the community. Where Boston Beers Comes in Boston Beers Company has a role to play in ensuring reduction in the level of water pollution in the environs of the company. The company is not solely to blame for water pollution. Even so, there are several reasons as to why the Boston Beers ought to be at the front line in making efforts to reduce water pollution. They are as listed. The samples of water that underwent testing, especially water from rivers, was high in brewery effluents. Brewery effluents are rich in nitrogen, carbohydrates, and cleaning reagents (Massachusetts Ports Authority, 2013). These are some of the wildest and most common water pollutants and are notorious for reducing oxygen in the water and consequently a rapid depletion in plant and animal life. It also leads to many avoidable ailments in the community that stem from consuming contaminated water. Secondly, Boston Beers Company performed poorly on the rating scales for measures against water pollution (USEPA, 2012). The company’s performance reflects in community’s opinions. As far as the community is concerned, Boston Beers is not doing enough to protect the environment against water pollution. This fault needs to be dealt with promptly and in the best means available. Finally, Kim Morotta of the MillerCoors once stated, â€Å"Without water, there is no beer†. Polluted water is rendered unusable for consumption and production (Massachusetts Ports Authority, 2013). As a company that is highly dependent on a steady flow of water, which is one of the primary ingredients, there is need for Boston Beers to participate actively in guaranteeing a steady flow of water. The Program and Implementation As earlier stated, the aim of the program is to protect the en

On Double Standards Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

On Double Standards - Essay Example Men are expected to be more aggressive while women are supposed to be more submissive and reserved. It is readily accepted that some things are naturally "men's" things while some are "women's." For example, a man who is attracted to a pretty woman can always ask her out. However, a woman asking a man out is less acceptable. The commencement of a relationship is seen as the "right" of every guy while ladies can only accept. The essay will look at the different double standards based on gender. The first section will look at the most common double standards present in the society. Afterwards, the essay will expose the arguments for and against double standard. It will also contain various citations from different authors and social scientists who are experts in this topic. In the end, I will give my own opinion regarding the essay. The fate of an individual is undeniably almost always determined by sexuality. It is irrefutable that the society where are living in has this preconceived notion of what is right and what is acceptable action for each gender. Currently, society has readily accepted that some things are naturally "men's" things while some are "women's." The presence of double standard is an undeniable fact.

Money and capital Markets. Evaluate the potential and possible Essay

Money and capital Markets. Evaluate the potential and possible consequences of a systemic financial crisis - Essay Example ust be stated the paper will address the problems in UK but the general scenario of mainly of the U.S is expected including relevant information from the rest of the world. Eichengreen, Barry (2001) stated that there is no agreed definition of financial crises; economists and historians typically assert that â€Å"they know them when the see them.† (Krugman, 2000). He cited the attempt of Eichengreen and Portes (1985) define a financial crisis as a disturbance that leads to widespread distress among financial institutions and market participants, disrupts the market’s capacity to allocate financial resources efficiently, and has repercussions for the nonfinancial economy. Hence he said that international financial crisis, according to their definition, is one where these disturbances and their effects spill over national borders. He thus admits that 20 years later, he is of the view that , perhaps predictably, that it is still hard to improve on this definition. He argued that then that the generality of this definition points up the difficulty of moving from theory to empirics since disturbances to financial markets are not independently observed; thus they must be inferred from the behaviour of asset prices and quantities (Paraphrasing made). Eichengreen, Barry (2001) made it clear as a standard practice in the literature on currency and banking crises, where disturbances to the foreign exchange market are inferred from the behaviour of exchange rates, interest rates and foreign reserves and disturbances to the banking system are inferred from interbank rates and changes in deposits (Paraphrasing made). Is international crisis the same as systemic crisis? Eichengreen, Barry (2001) said, â€Å"International crises that affect different countries simultaneously are analytically distinct from systemic crises that threaten the stability of the global financial system, although the former are arguably a precondition for the latter. Systemic crises are harder to

New Paradigms in the Study of the Civil War Essay Example for Free

New Paradigms in the Study of the Civil War Essay A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same nation state or republic, or, less commonly, between two countries created from a formerly united nation state. The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies. Civil wars since the end of World War II have lasted on average just over four years, a dramatic rise from the one-and-a-half year average of the 1900-1944 period. While the rate of emergence of new civil wars has been relatively steady since the mid-19th century, the increasing length of those wars resulted in increasing numbers of wars ongoing at any one time. For example, there were no more than five civil wars underway simultaneously in the first half of the 20th century, while over 20 concurrent civil wars were occurring at the end of the Cold War, before a significant decrease as conflicts strongly associated with the superpower rivalry came to an end. Since 1945, civil wars have resulted in the deaths of over 25 million people, as well as the forced displacement of millions more. Civil wars have further resulted in economic collapse; Somalia, Burma, Uganda and Angola are examples of nations that were considered to have promising futures before being engulfed in civil wars. Formal classification James Fearon, a scholar of civil wars at Stanford University, defines a civil war as a violent conflict within a country fought by organized groups that aim to take power at the center or in a region, or to change government policies. The Correlates of War, a dataset widely used by scholars of conflict, classifies civil wars as having over 1000 war-related casualties per year of conflict. This rate is a small fraction of the millions killed in the Second Sudanese Civil War and Cambodian Civil War, for example, but excludes several highly publicized conflicts, such as The Troubles of Northern Ireland and the struggle of the African National Congress in Apartheid-era South Africa. That the Party in revolt against the de jure Government possesses an organized military force, an authority responsible for its acts, acting within a determinate territory and having the means of respecting and ensuring respect for the Convention. That the legal Government is obliged to have recourse to the regular military forces against insurgents organized as military and in possession of a part of the national territory. That the de jure Government has recognized the insurgents as belligerents; or That it has claimed for itself the rights of a belligerent; or That it has accorded the insurgents recognition as belligerents for the purposes only of the present Convention; or That the dispute has been admitted to the agenda of the Security Council or the General Assembly of the United Nations as being a threat to international peace, a breach of the peace, or an act of aggression. That the insurgents have an organization purporting to have the characteristics of a State. That the insurgent civil authority exercises de facto authority over the population within a determinate portion of the national territory. That the armed forces act under the direction of an organized authority and are prepared to observe the ordinary laws of war. That the insurgent civil authority agrees to be bound by the provisions of the Convention. Causes of civil war in the Collier-Hoeffler Model Scholars investigating the cause of civil war are attracted by two opposing theories, greed versus grievance. Roughly stated: are conflicts caused by who people are, whether that be defined in terms of ethnicity, religion or other social affiliation, or do conflicts begin because it is in the economic best interests of individuals and groups to start them? Scholarly analysis supports the conclusion that economic and structural factors are more important than those of identity in predicting occurrences of civil war. A comprehensive studies of civil war was carried out by a team from the World Bank in the early 21st century. The study framework, which came to be called the Collier-Hoeffler Model, examined 78 five-year increments when civil war occurred from 1960 to 1999, as well as 1,167 five-year increments of no civil war for comparison, and subjected the data set to regression analysis to see the effect of various factors. The factors that were shown to have a statistically significant effect on the chance that a civil war would occur in any given five-year period were: Availability of finance A high proportion of primary commodities in national exports significantly increases the risk of a conflict. A country at peak danger, with commodities comprising 32% of gross domestic product, has a 22% risk of falling into civil war in a given five-year period, while a country with no primary commodity exports has a 1% risk. When disaggregated, only petroleum and non-petroleum groupings showed different results: a country with relatively low levels of dependence on petroleum exports is at slightly less risk, while a high-level of dependence on oil as an export results in slightly more risk of a civil war than national dependence on another primary commodity. The authors of the study interpreted this as being the result of the ease by which primary commodities may be extorted or captured compared to other forms of wealth, for example, it is easy to capture and control the output of a gold mine or oil field compared to a sector of garment manufacturing or hospitality services. A second source of finance is national diasporas, which can fund rebellions and insurgencies from abroad. The study found that statistically switching the size of a countrys diaspora from the smallest found in the study to the largest resulted in a sixfold increase in the chance of a civil war. Low per capita income has been proposed as a cause for grievance, prompting armed rebellion. However, for this to be true, one would expect economic inequality to also be a significant factor in rebellions, which it is not. The study therefore concluded that the economic model of opportunity cost better explained the findings. Population size The various factors contributing to the risk of civil war rise increase with population size. The risk of a civil war rises approximately proportionately with the size of a countrys population. Gleditsch et al. did not find a relationship between ethnic groups with polygyny and increased frequency of civil wars but nations having legal polygamy may have more civil wars. They argued that misogyny is a better explanation than polygyny. They found that increased womens rights were are associated with less civil wars and that legal polygamy had no effect after women’s rights were controlled for. Duration of civil wars Ann Hironaka, author of Neverending Wars, divides the modern history of civil wars into the pre-19th century, 19th century to early 20th century, and late 20th century. In 19th-century Europe, the length of civil wars fell significantly, largely due to the nature of the conflicts as battles for the power center of the state, the strength of centralized governments, and the normally quick and decisive intervention by other states to support the government. Following World War II the duration of civil wars grew past the norm of the pre-19th century, largely due to weakness of the many postcolonial states and the intervention by major powers on both sides of conflict. The most obvious commonality to civil wars are that they occur in fragile states. Civil wars in the 19th and early 20th centuries Civil wars through the 19th century to early 20th century tended to be short; the average length of a civil war between 1900 and 1944 was one and half years. The state itself was the obvious center of authority in the majority of cases, and the civil wars were thus fought for control of the state. This meant that whoever had control of the capital and the military could normally crush resistance. If a rebellion failed to quickly seize the capital and control of the military for itself, it was normally doomed to a quick destruction. For example, the fighting associated with the 1871 Paris Commune occurred almost entirely in Paris, and ended quickly once the military sided with the government. The power of non-state actors resulted in a lower value placed on sovereignty in the 18th and 19th centuries, which further reduced the number of civil wars. For example, the pirates of the Barbary Coast were recognized as de facto states because of their military power. The Barbary pirates thus had no need to rebel against the Ottoman Empire, who were their nominal state government, to gain recognition for their sovereignty. Conversely, states such as Virginia and Massachusetts in the United States of America did not have sovereign status, but had significant political and economic independence coupled with weak federal control, reducing the incentive to secede. The two major global ideologies, monarchism and democracy, led to several civil wars. However, a bi-polar world, divided between the two ideologies, did not develop, largely due the dominance of monarchists through most of the period. The monarchists would thus normally intervene in other countries to stop democratic movements taking control and forming democratic governments, which were seen by monarchists as being both dangerous and unpredictable. The Great Powers, defined in the 1815 Congress of Vienna as the United Kingdom, Habsburg Austria, Prussia, France, and Russia, would frequently coordinate interventions in other nations civil wars, nearly always on the side of the incumbent government. Given the military strength of the Great Powers, these interventions were nearly always decisive and quickly ended the civil wars. There were several exceptions from the general rule of quick civil wars during this period. The American Civil War was unusual for at least two reasons: it was fought around regional identities, rather than political ideologies, and it was ended through a war of attrition, rather than over a decisive battle over control of the capital, as was the norm. The Spanish Civil War was exceptional because both sides of the war received support from intervening great powers: Germany, Italy, and Portugal supported opposition leader Francisco Franco, while France and the Soviet Union supported the government . Civil wars since 1945 In the 1990s, about twenty civil wars were occurring concurrently during an average year, a rate about ten times the historical average since the 19th century. However, the rate of new civil wars had not increased appreciably; the drastic rise in the number of ongoing wars after World War II was a result of the tripling of the average duration of civil wars to over four years. This increase was a result of the increased number of states, the fragility of states formed after 1945, the decline in interstate war, and the Cold War rivalry. Following World War II, the major European powers divested themselves of their colonies at an increasing rate: the number of ex-colonial states jumped from about 30 to almost 120 after the war. The rate of state formation leveled off in the 1980s, at which point few colonies remained. More states also meant more states in which to have long civil wars. Hironaka statistically measures the impact of the increased number of ex-colonial states as increasing the post-WWII incidence of civil wars by +165% over the pre-1945 number. While the new ex-colonial states appeared to follow the blueprint of the idealized state centralized government, territory enclosed by defined borders, and citizenry with defined rights -, as well as accessories such as a national flag, an anthem, a seat at the United Nations and an official economic policy, they were in actuality far weaker than the Western states they were modeled after. In Western states, the structure of governments closely matched states actual capabilities, which had been arduously developed over centuries. The development of strong administrative structures, in particular those related to extraction of taxes, is closely associated with the intense warfare between predatory European states in the 17th and 18th centuries, or in Charles Tillys famous formulation: War made the state and the state made war. For example, the formation of the modern states of Germany and Italy in the 19th century is closely associated with the wars of expansion and consolidation led by Prussia and Sardinia, respectively. Such states are considered weak or fragile. The strong-weak categorization is not the same as Western-non-Western, as some Latin American states like Argentina and Brazil and Middle Eastern states like Egypt and Israel are considered to have strong administrative structures and economic infrastructure. Historically, the international community would have targeted weak states for territorial absorption or colonial domination or, alternatively, such states would fragment into pieces small enough to be effectively administered and secured by a local power. However, international norms towards sovereignty changed in the wake of WWII in ways that support and maintain the existence of weak states. Weak states are given de jure sovereignty equal to that of other states, even when they do not have de facto sovereignty or control of their own territory, including the privileges of international diplomatic recognition and an equal vote in the United Nations. Further, the international community offers development aid to weak states, which helps maintain the facade of a functioning modern state by giving the appearance that the state is capable of fulfilling its implied responsibilities of control and order. The formation of a strong international law regime and norms against territorial aggression is strongly associated with the dramatic drop in the number of interstate wars, though it has also been attributed to the effect of the Cold War or to the changing nature of economic development. Consequently, military aggression that results in territorial annexation became increasingly likely to prompt international condemnation, diplomatic censure, a reduction in international aid or the introduction of economic sanction, or, as in the case of 1990 invasion of Kuwait by Iraq, international military intervention to reverse the territorial aggression. Similarly, the international community has largely refused to recognize secessionist regions, while keeping some secessionist self-declared states such as Taiwan in diplomatic recognition limbo. While there is not a large body of academic work examining the relationship, Hironakas statistical study found a correlation that suggests that every major international anti-secessionist declaration increased the number of ongoing civil wars by +10%, or a total +114% from 1945 to 1997. The diplomatic and legal protection given by the international community, as well as economic support to weak governments and discouragement of secession, thus had the unintended effect of encouraging civil wars. There has been an enormous amount of international intervention in civil wars since 1945 that served to extend wars. While intervention has been practiced since the international system has existed, its nature changed substantially. It became common for both the state and opposition group to receive foreign support, allowing wars to continue well past the point when domestic resources had been exhausted. Superpowers, such as the European great powers, had always felt no compunction in intervening in civil wars that affected their interests, while distant regional powers such as the United States could declare the interventionist Monroe Doctrine of 1821 for events in its Central American backyard. However, the large population of weak states after 1945 allowed intervention by former colonial powers, regional powers and neighboring states who themselves often had scarce resources. On average, a civil war with interstate intervention was 300% longer than those without. When disaggregated, a civil war with intervention on only one side is 156% longer, while intervention on both sides lengthens the average civil war by an addition 92%. If one of the intervening states was a superpower, a civil war is extended a further 72%; a conflict such as the Angolan Civil War, in which there is two-sided foreign intervention, including by a superpower, would be 538% longer on average than a civil war without any international intervention. Effect of the Cold War The Cold War provided a global network of material and ideological support that perpetuated civil wars, which were mainly fought in weak ex-colonial states, rather than the relatively strong states that were aligned with the Warsaw Pact and North Atlantic Treaty Organization. In some cases, superpowers would superimpose Cold War ideology onto local conflicts, while in others local actors using Cold War ideology would attract the attention of a superpower to obtain support. Using a separate statistical evaluation than used above for interventions, civil wars that included pro- or anti-communist forces lasted 141% longer than the average non-Cold War conflict, while a Cold War civil war that attracted superpower intervention resulted in wars typically lasting over three times as long as other civil wars. Conversely, the end of the Cold War marked by the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 resulted in a reduction in the duration of Cold War civil wars of 92% or, phrased another way, a roughly ten-fold increase in the rate of resolution of Cold War civil wars. Lengthy Cold War-associated civil conflicts that ground to a halt include the wars of Guatemala, El Salvador and Nicaragua . See also The Logic of Violence in Civil War War of Independence Wars of national liberation References