Humanism During The Renaissance Essays (1790 words) - Epistemology

Humanism during the Renaissance During the renaissance, there was a renewed interest in the arts, and the traditional views of society came into question. People began to explore the power of the human mind. A term often used to describe the increasing interest in the powers of the human mind is humanism. Generally, humanism stresses the individual's creative, reasoning, and aesthetic powers. However, during the Renaissance, individual ideas about humanism differed. Writers and philosophers of the Renaissance time period expressed their opinions about human nature and human's roles in the universe through their writings. Pico della Mirandola's "Oration on the dignity of man", which glorifies humanity and praises the human ability to reason, offers the opposing view to Shakespeare's Hamlet and Montaigne's essay "Man's presumption and Littleness" which both suggest that humans are no higher in the universal order of things than any other of God's creatures. Pico begins his essay by informing his readers that he knows where humans stand in the divine order of the world. Pico believes that humans were the last creatures created by God, and that God's purpose, in creating them, was to fulfill his desire for someone to appreciate the great wonders and beauties of his world: When the work was finished, the Craftsman kept wishing that there were someone to ponder the plan of so great a work... therefore... he finally took thought concerning the creation of man. (Mirandola 224) It is also Pico's belief that when Humans were created, they were given qualities both divine and earthly, and could become whatever they chose: We have made thee neither of heaven nor of earth, neither mortal nor immortal, so that with freedom of choice... thou mayest fashion thyself in whatever shape thou shalt prefer. (Mirandola 225) Pico's conclusion about human ranking among the divine order of things was that while some people were almost celestial, others were no better than animals, and that this great variance of character among the human population only served to increase their importance and uniqueness from all other of God's creatures. His essay, which praised human greatness and exalted the powers of humanity, was opposed by more negative views of humanity, as expressed in the works of Montaigne and Shakespeare. Montaigne's essay "Man's presumption and Littleness" belittles the greatness of man so much that he becomes no more than another beast among beasts, possibly even lower than some of God's other creatures. Montaigne cannot imagine why man believes himself so great: Is it possible to imagine anything so ridiculous as that this miserable and puny creature, who is not even master of himself... should call himself master and emperor of the universe, the least part of which is not in his power to understand, much less command? (Montaigne 1808) With this statement, Montaigne not only communicates his disbelief that man is great, but also his doubt that he can obtain any knowledge of the world around him. Montaigne goes to length to point out the faults and failures of humanity. Where Pico takes pains to explain the greatness of man, Montaigne does the same to prove his ?littleness' "Presumption is our natural and original malady." (Montaigne 1810) Speaking of animals and humans, he writes: This defect that hinders communication between them and us, why is it not just as much ours as theirs? ...We do not understand them any more than they do us. By this same reasoning, they may consider us beasts, as we consider them... we must notice the parity there is between us. (Montaigne 1811) In his writing, Montaigne not only suggests our likeness to other creatures, but goes even further, to suggest the superiority that most creatures have to us. We recognize easily enough... how much superiority animals have over us... by making Nature... accompany them and guide them... while us she abandons to chance and fortune... and denies us... the natural resourcefulness of the animals; so that their brutish stupidity surpasses... all that our divine intelligence can do. (Montaigne 1813) In the conclusion of his essay, Montaigne sums up his views about the divine order, and the place that humanity might occupy in that order. If it is true that he alone of all the animals has this freedom of imagination and this unruliness in thought that represents to him what is, what is not, what he wants, the false and the true, it is an advantage that is sold to him very dear...

Free Essays on The Struggle Within Huckleberry Finn

The Struggle within Huckelberry Finn Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is a novel about a boy’s struggle with his inner conscience in the Missouri of the 1800’s. Huckleberry Finn spends most of his time floating down the Mississippi River on a raft with a runaway slave named Jim. The novel illustrates Huck’s battle with his conscience over slavery, education, and society’s beliefs. Huck is a rebellious young boy who finds himself taking some responsibility and maturing throughout the novel. Although Mark Twain wrote Huckleberry Finn twenty years after the Civil War, America was still struggling with racism and the aftereffects of slavery; especially the South. Jim is a runaway slave and the companion of Huck Finn as they both travel down the river. According to the law, Jim is Miss Watson’s property, but according to Huck’s logic and fairness it seems â€Å"right† to help Jim. As Huck spends more time with Jim he stats seeing him as a friend instead of a slave or a fugitive on the run. An example of this is when Huck encounters a group of slave hunters and makes up a story in order to lure them away from Jim. But Jim remains at the mercy of every character in the novel, including Huck, as the letter that Huck nearly sent to Miss Watson shows the inner conflict that he is struggling with. Nonetheless Jim remains a loyal friend and he is actually the only adult who provides a positive example for Huck to follow. Huckleberry Finn has morally educated himself throughout the novel rather than intellectually. Most of the novel illustrates the maturation and development of Huck. He is a poor, uneducated orphan boy who does not trust the teachings that others try to install in him. When Huck meets Jim he starts to question the teachings he received especially regarding race and slavery. More than once Huck chooses to â€Å"go to hell† rather than following the rules and going along with what he has bee... Free Essays on The Struggle Within Huckleberry Finn Free Essays on The Struggle Within Huckleberry Finn The Struggle within Huckelberry Finn Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is a novel about a boy’s struggle with his inner conscience in the Missouri of the 1800’s. Huckleberry Finn spends most of his time floating down the Mississippi River on a raft with a runaway slave named Jim. The novel illustrates Huck’s battle with his conscience over slavery, education, and society’s beliefs. Huck is a rebellious young boy who finds himself taking some responsibility and maturing throughout the novel. Although Mark Twain wrote Huckleberry Finn twenty years after the Civil War, America was still struggling with racism and the aftereffects of slavery; especially the South. Jim is a runaway slave and the companion of Huck Finn as they both travel down the river. According to the law, Jim is Miss Watson’s property, but according to Huck’s logic and fairness it seems â€Å"right† to help Jim. As Huck spends more time with Jim he stats seeing him as a friend instead of a slave or a fugitive on the run. An example of this is when Huck encounters a group of slave hunters and makes up a story in order to lure them away from Jim. But Jim remains at the mercy of every character in the novel, including Huck, as the letter that Huck nearly sent to Miss Watson shows the inner conflict that he is struggling with. Nonetheless Jim remains a loyal friend and he is actually the only adult who provides a positive example for Huck to follow. Huckleberry Finn has morally educated himself throughout the novel rather than intellectually. Most of the novel illustrates the maturation and development of Huck. He is a poor, uneducated orphan boy who does not trust the teachings that others try to install in him. When Huck meets Jim he starts to question the teachings he received especially regarding race and slavery. More than once Huck chooses to â€Å"go to hell† rather than following the rules and going along with what he has bee...

Classroom Management and Discipline for a Diverse Student Population Research Paper

Classroom Management and Discipline for a Diverse Student Population - Research Paper Example Three diversities of learner needs have been considered. These diversities are in the areas of learner achievement levels, socio-cultural background of learners and health needs of learners. Reasons why it is important for the teacher to ensure that there is an environment to cater for diversities in all the three areas of learner needs have been elaborated. Again, the research suggests specific approaches to be used by teachers to ensure accommodation and adaptation for differences in all three areas of learner diversity. The research closes by examining how the teacher can also cater for different learner behaviours to foster discipline in the class. Three theories have been reviewed and corresponded to how they can solve three persistent classroom related undisciplined behaviours that a teacher encounters on a regular basis. The behaviours looked at are absenteeism, inattentiveness in class and bullying. Having the managerial skills to tackle all forms of learner behaviour is very important to ensure that the classroom lives up to a desired learning atmosphere and that all learners leave the classroom each day with fulfilled dreams of going to school. Overview Day in an out, the face of teaching as a profession keeps changing; becoming more and challenging to meet the changing learning needs of students. Years past, learning was seen as the responsibility of the student. The teacher was therefore seen as a conveyer of information for the student to learn – by whatever means the student could make himself understand what the teacher teaches. Because of this, teachers went about teaching in a whole-class approach, leaving the responsibility of understanding lessons to the student. In that era, examinations were put in place to test which students learnt what the teacher taught and which students did not learn. Today, that is no more. The teacher is now seen as part of the child’s learning process with the responsibility of ensuring that his teach ing meets the learning needs of the student. Today, the teacher is seen as a facilitator who is to ensure that the student understands his teaching – by whatever means the teacher could make himself understood. Examination has therefore become a test of which teacher could meet learning needs of students. In order to meet the individual needs of the classroom population, teachers are putting away whole-class teaching approaches for diversity approached. Teachers are now required to adopt diversity approach to meet the learning needs of all learners in the classroom. According to Crawley (2006), A â€Å"diversity approach aims to recognize, value and manage difference to enable all learners to contribute and realize their full potential.† It is the aim of this research paper therefore, to investigate into various learning theories to find out how they support the concept of diversity approach in classroom situations. This will be done by delving into what diversity is, areas of classroom experiences the teacher is likely to meet diversity and the importance of catering for diversity in the classroom. There shall then be analyzes of best practices for effective classroom management to minimize disruptive behavior and increase learning in the diverse

Linguistic features that distinguish regional and social varieties of Essay

Linguistic features that distinguish regional and social varieties of English - Essay Example These variations constitute the dialects of the people. Many factors have influenced to develop a standard form of language in all major speech communities. These in turn have been used as the official dialects of the communities. (The Columbia electronic encyclopedia,2006) The official dialect usually differs from the day to day language, it has some "officiality" in it which would contain certain standards of grammar, pronunciations etc. The standard English of England is derived from London English. A person is marked as cultivated in the United states which entails usage of standard grammar and pronunciation. Also the degree of politeness of a person is judged by the efficiency with which he or she speaks the standard language. Sometimes ordinary speech can be affected by the standard language. Hence some usages would tend to be incorrect such as "you was" in place of "you were" etc. Similarly "gotten" is accepted in United States but not in England. Similarly "Gotten" is accepted by the United States but not in England. Also the standard of linguistic variations are mainly because of vocabulary. Language changes have traditionally been treated as processes constrained by internal linguistic factors. According to this view, language contacts have b een perceived as disturbing factors. Therefore, explaining language change requires new analytical ways of modelling contact, in which both internal and external factors are closely investigated. Studying language-internal processes requires a fundamental knowledge of sociolinguistic, textual and regional factors, since all variation-based analytical and explanatory models of language change rely on the idea of a combined effect of all factors. Another important insight is to be able to connect the latest language changes with historical ones. Hence, the concept of grammaticalization offers a productive starting point for analyses of language changes that span several hundred years. Linguistics Linguistics is the study of language on a scientific basis. Linguistics can be theoretical and applied. Linguistics compares languages (comparative linguistics) and explores their histories, in order to find universal properties of language and to account for its development and origins (historical linguistics). Slightly separate from general linguistics are the sub-fields of phonology, which studies the role of sounds in particular languages, and phonetics, the study of how sounds are produced and perceived. Linguistics are widely used to understand the variations of languages. Regional variation in English Everyone speaks some form of regional dialect a variety of a language that differs in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary from those spoken in other regions. In this sense, a region implies a construct of social and historical facts as well as a geographic area. The shared linguistic features that make up a regional dialect include historical facts of migration and community experience, social facts of ethnic identity, and geographic facts of climate and terrain. Each regional dialect also includes a number of social dialects that reflect the age, education, social class, and ethnic identity of its speakers. In England various dialects are spoken region wise like Scottish gaelic , Irish

Amazon's Data Assurance Policies Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Amazon's Data Assurance Policies - Assignment Example Amazon’s customers receive immediate notification of whether the transaction has been successful.   This is done first immediately online, giving them an opportunity to keep a printed record as well as being stored in their account history, which is viewable online.   An electronic mail is also sent to the customer as a further notification and security measure.In a credit card transaction there are three stages to processing an order; namely, authentication of the cardholder, authorization for the transaction from the card issuer, and eventually settlement by the card issuer with Amazon.   Once the card issuer authorizes the transaction Amazon will send a confirmation to the customer.   In a successful credit card transaction for an existing customer the following information assurance policies are embedded within Amazon’s order processing system to safeguard customers, Amazon and the card issuer against the risk of identity theft:Amazon’s information as surance policies ensure that it does not collect any data from customers that is not required either to facilitate online transactions or to improve the quality of their experience whilst on the site.   For example, behind the scenes, Amazon ensures that all credit card numbers are transferred to and stored on a computer that is not accessible by network or modem or connected to the Internet.   This is done via a one-way interface.   This acts as another layer of protection from internal security risks as most staff will have no reason to access that server.Often the weakest point in the information assurance policy is interaction with the end-user, as an organization relies on the end-user to keep personal data accurate and safeguard against threats to the integrity of network systems to which they have access.   Amazon’s success here is mixed.   For example, customers are forced to keep their personal data accurate in order to be authenticated for purchasing from the site and Amazon does not collect personal data for any other reason.  

Background Of Language Learning Strategies English Language Essay

Background Of Language Learning Strategies English Language Essay This chapter covers the background of language learning strategies (LLS), the literature review including the definitions of key terms, classifications of LLS, the characteristics of LLS, the factors influencing the choice of LLS, evidences from previous research studies, the teachers role in LLS training, and theoretical concepts. 2.1 Background of Language Learning Strategies Research on language learning strategies has been conducted since the 1960s. Williams and Burden (1997, p. 149) stated that developments in cognitive psychology influenced much of research done on language learning strategies. In most of the research on language learning strategies, the principal concern has been on identifying what good language learners report they do to learn a second or foreign language, or, in some cases, are observed doing while learning a second or foreign language (Rubin Wenden 1987, p. 19). In 1966, Carton published The Method of Inference in Foreign Language Study, which was the initial effort to describe second language learners strategies. Then in 1971, Rubin began to conduct research regarding the strategies of successful learners and affirmed that, once acknowledged, such strategies could be made available to less successful learners. Rubin (1975) categorized strategies in terms of processes contributing directly or indirectly to language learning. Won g-Fillmore (1976), Tarone (1977), Naiman et al. (1978), Bialystok (1979), Cohen and Aphek (1981), Wenden (1982), Chamot and OMalley (1987), Politzer and McGroarty (1985), Conti and Kolsody (1997), and many others have also researched strategies employed by language learners during foreign language learning. 2.2 Literature Review 2.2.1 Defining concepts There have been many researchers trying to give a definition of the term language learning strategies. In the ancient Greek language, Strategy = strategia means generalship or the knack of fighting (Yi et al., 2007). In a more precise intelligence, strategy entails the most favourable supervision of troops, ships or aircraft in a designed operation while tactic is diverse, but is associated with sub-strategies which are the apparatus to accomplish the achievement of strategies. In non-military settings, the concept of strategy has been applied to the non-adversarial situations, where it has come to imply an arrangement, movement or an act is used for attaining a detailed purpose (Oxford, 1990). Oxford (1990) stated that strategies are particularly important for language learning because they are tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for developing communicative competence (p. 1). Because they are very noteworthy, learning strategies have been broadly employe d in the learning field. Many researchers have tried to give definitions to language learning strategy using different terms and different concepts of their own which will be discussed in the following paragraphs. Many researchers have conceptualised variously the term language learning strategies. Strategy originates from ancient Greek language strategia, which implies fighting capability (Yi et al., 2007). Regarding military field, strategy is fundamental to troop surveillance, while tactic is a tool to achieve the strategic goal. Apart from militarism, strategy has been defined as preparedness to accomplish a target (Oxford, 1990). To develop communicative competence, strategies are indispensable to language learning (Oxford, 1990, p.1). For this reason, most researchers have viewed language learning strategy diversely as follows. Schemeck (1988) defined strategy as the performance of a set of actions (tactics) for accomplishing some goal and learning strategy as a chain of actions for accomplishing learning (p. 5). Weinstein and Mayer (1986) explained that learning strategies are behaviours and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning and that are projected to persuade the learners encoding process (p. 315). More specifically, Rigney (1978) gave a definition of a learning strategy as cognitive strategy which is used to indicate operations and procedures that the student may use to acquire, retain, and retrieve different kinds of knowledge and performance (p. 165). Rubin (1975) defined strategies as the techniques or devices, which a learner may use to acquire knowledge (p. 43). Later, Rubin (1981) did a study to discover cognitive strategies in second language learning and got to know the distinction between direct and indirect language learning strategies. In 1987, Rubin proposed language learning strategies as strategies which lead to the improvement of the language structure which the learner builds and which shapes learning from then on (p. 23). She also recommended that language learning strategies consist of any set of operations, steps, plans, routines used by the learner to facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval and use of information (p. 19). Bialystock (1978) defined learning strategies as optional means for exploiting available information to improve competence in a second language (p. 71). He then identified four kinds of language learning strategies: (a) formal practising; (b) functional practising; (c) monitoring; and (d) inferencing. According to OMalley et al. (1985), language learning strategies have been broadly defined as any set of operations or steps used by a learner that will facilitate the acquisition, storage, retrieval or use of information (p. 23). In this study, they classified twenty-six strategies into three subgroups: metacognitive, cognitive, and social-affective. In the same way, Chamot (1987) said learning strategies are techniques, approaches, or deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate the learning and recall of both linguistic and content area information (p. 71). She proposed that some language learning strategies are observable, but some may not be. In a cognitive perspect ive, OMalley and Chamot thought of language learning strategies as the special thoughts or behaviours that individuals used to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information (p. 1). Nisbet (1986) gave another explanation of language learning strategies as always determined and goal-oriented, but perhaps not always accepted at a conscious or deliberate level. They can be long-lasting or so speedy in implementation that it is unfeasible for the learner to bring back, recall or even be responsive that one has utilized a strategy (p. 25). Oxford and Crookall (1989) defined language learning strategies as steps taken by the learner to aid the acquisition, storage, and retrieval of information (p. 404). They noted that strategies may be used consciously but they can also become habitual and automatic with practice. Similarly, Oxford (1990) claimed that learning strategies are steps taken by students to enhance their own learning (p. 1), and she said they were specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations (p. 8). Scrella Oxford (1992) found that learnin g strategies were specific actions, behaviours, steps, or techniques-such as seeking out conversation partners, or giving oneself encouragement to tackle a difficult language task-used by students to enhance their own learning (p. 63). MacIntyre (1994) argued that the term strategy implied active planning in pursuit of some goal, which was not something that would automatically occur. He emphasised the learners deliberate action of language learning strategies. He provided a different perspective of defining language learning strategies as the actions chosen by language students that are intended to facilitate language acquisition and communication (p. 190). The definition focuses more on learners intention and choice in using language learning strategies. In 1999, Nunan gave the definition of learning strategies as mental and communicative procedures learners use in order to learn and use language (p. 171). Four researchers, Chamot, Barnhadt, El-Dinary Rubbins (1999), defined learning strategies as the thoughts and actions engaged in, consciously or not, to learn new information (p. 1). Lastly, Hall (2001) referred learning strategies to goal-directed actions that were used by learners to mediate their own learni ng (p. 92). Researchers have recognized and illustrated language learning strategies which language learners use when they process new information and perform responsibilities (Hismanoglu, 2000). In the subsequent section, how different researchers have classified language learning strategies will be shortly summarized. Language learners should know exactly the strategies to be used in order to improve their achievement. Cohen, Weaver, Li (1996) argued that: Strategies for language learning and language use have been receiving ever-growing attention in the areas of foreign language teaching and learning (Oxford 1990, Cohen 1990, OMalley Chamot 1990, Wenden 1991, Brown 1991, Rubin Thompson 1994, Mendelsohn 1994, Mc Donough 1995). It is fair to say that language educators in many different contexts have been seeking ways to help students become more successful in their efforts to learn and communicate in foreign languages. The application of foreign language learning and use strategies is viewed as one vehicle for promoting greater success. A strategy is considered to be effective if it provides positive support to the students in their attempts to learn or use the foreign language. (p. 3) The Qualifications and Curriculum Development Agency (2009) defines successful learners as: people who own essential literate learning skills, numeracy and information and technology of communication. people who have good sense of creativity, are resourceful in identifying and problem solving. people who process information, reason, question and carry out evaluation by themselves. people who communicate in many means. people who understand how they learn and learn from their mistakes. people who are able to learn individually and work in groups. people who have world knowledge. people who enjoy learning and are motivated to achieve the best they can now and in the future. 2.2.2 Taxonomy of Language Learning Strategies Since the 1960s, the research of language learning strategies has been conducted by many language researchers (Wenden Rubin, 1987; OMalley et al., 1985; Oxford, 1990; Stern, 1992; Ellis, 1994). Most of these attempts to categorize language learning strategies are a sign of more or less the same classifications of language learning strategies without any fundamental changes. As below, OMalleys (1985), Rubins (1987), Sterns (1992), and Oxfords (1990) taxonomies of language learning strategies will be described: 2.2.2.1 OMalleys (1985) Classification of Language Learning Strategies OMalley et al. (1985, pp. 582-584) divide language learning strategies into three main subcategories: Metacognitive Strategies Cognitive Strategies Socioaffective Strategies A. Metacognitive Strategies It can be stated that metacognitive is a term to express executive function, strategies which require planning for learning, thinking about the learning process as it is taking place, monitoring of ones production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity is complete. Among the main metacognitive strategies, it is possible to include advance organizers, directed attention, selective attention, self-management, functional planning, self-monitoring, delayed production, self-evaluation. B. Cognitive Strategies Cognitive strategies are more limited to specific learning tasks and they involve more direct manipulation of the learning material itself. Repetition, resourcing, translation, grouping, note-taking, deduction, recombination, imaginary, auditory representation, key word, contextualization, elaboration, transfer, influencing are among the most important cognitive strategies. C. Socioaffective Strategies As to the socioaffective strategies, it can be stated that they are related with social-mediating activity and transacting with others. Cooperation and questioning for clarification are the main socioaffective strategies (Brown, 1987, pp. 93-94). 2.2.2.2 Rubins (1987) Classification of Language Learning Strategies Rubin, who pioneered much of the work in the field of strategies, makes the distinction between strategies contributing directly to learning and those contributing indirectly to learning. According to Rubin (1987), there are three types of strategies used by learners that contribute directly or indirectly to language learning. These are: Learning Strategies Communication Strategies Social Strategies A. Learning Strategies They are of two main types, being the strategies contributing directly to the development of the language system constructed by the learner: Cognitive Learning Strategies Metacognitive Learning Strategies A.1 Cognitive Learning Strategies They refer to the steps or operations used in learning or problem-solving that requires direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning materials. Rubin identified six main cognitive learning strategies contributing directly to language learning: Clarification/Verification Guessing/Inductive Inferencing Deductive Reasoning Practice Memorization Monitoring A.2 Metacognitive Learning Strategies These strategies are used to oversee, regulate or self-direct language learning. They involve various processes as planning, prioritizing, setting goals, and self-management. B. Communication Strategies They are less directly related to language learning since their focus is on the process of participating in a conversation and getting meaning or clarifying what the speaker intended. Communication strategies are used by speakers when faced with some difficulty due to the fact that their communication ends outrun their communication means or when confronted with misunderstanding by a co-speaker. C. Social Strategies Social strategies are those activities learners engage in which afford them opportunities to be exposed to and practice their knowledge. Although these strategies provide exposure to the target language, they contribute indirectly to learning since they do not lead directly to the obtaining, storing, retrieving, and using of language (Rubin Wenden, 1987, pp. 23-27). 2.2.2.3 Sterns (1992) Classification of Language Learning Strategies According to Stern (1992, pp. 262-266), there are five main language learning strategies as follows: Management and Planning Strategies Cognitive Strategies Communicative-Experiential Strategies Interpersonal Strategies Affective Strategies A. Management and Planning Strategies These strategies are related to the learners intention to direct his own learning. A learner can take charge of the development of his own programme when he is helped by a teacher whose role is that of an adviser and resource person. This is to say that the learner must decide what commitment to make to language learning set himself reasonable goals decide on an appropriate methodology, select appropriate resources, and monitor progress, evaluate his achievement in the light of previously determined goals and expectations (Stern, 1992, p. 263). B. Cognitive Strategies They are steps or operations used in learning or problem solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning materials. In the following, some of the cognitive strategies are exhibited: Clarification/Verification Guessing/Inductive Inferencing Deductive Reasoning Practice Memorization Monitoring C. Communicative-Experiential Strategies Communication strategies, such as circumlocution, gesturing, paraphrase, or asking for repetition and explanation are techniques used by learners so as to keep a conversation going. The purpose of using these techniques is to avoid interrupting the flow of communication (Stern, 1992, p. 265). D. Interpersonal Strategies They should monitor their own development and evaluate their own performance. Learners should contact with native speakers and cooperate with them. Learners must become acquainted with the target culture (Stern, 1992, pp. 265-266). E. Affective Strategies It is evident that good language learners employ distinct affective strategies. Language learning can be frustrating in some cases. In some cases, the feeling of strangeness can be evoked by the foreign language. In some cases, L2 learners may have negative feelings about native speakers of L2. Good language learners are more or less conscious of these emotional problems. Good language learners try to create associations of positive affect towards the foreign language and its speakers as well as towards the learning activities involved. Learning training can help students to face up the emotional difficulties and to overcome them by drawing attention to the potential frustrations or pointing them out as they arise (Stern, 1992, p. 266). 2.2.2.4 Oxfords (1990) Classification of Language Learning Strategies Oxford (1990, p. 9) sees the aim of language learning strategies as being oriented towards the development of communicative competence. Oxford divides language learning strategies into two main classes, direct and indirect, which are further subdivided into six groups (cognitive, memory, and compensation under the direct; metacognitive, affective, and social under the indirect class) (see Figure 1). Each of six groups shown above has some more concrete strategies, as shown in Table 1 and Table 2. Some language learning strategies which relate with learning directly are called direct strategies. All direct strategies require mental processing of the target language, but the three groups of direct strategies (cognitive, memory and compensation) do this processing differently and for different process (Oxford, 1990). Cognitive strategies, such as practising or analysing, enable learners to understand and produce new language by many different means. Memory strategies, such as grouping or using imaginary, have highly specific functions. They help students store and retrieve new information. Compensation strategies, like guessing or using synonyms, allow learners to use the language despite their often large gaps in knowledge. Other language learning strategies are called indirect strategies because they support and manage language learning without, in many instances, directly involving the target language (Oxford, 1990). Indirect strategies are divided into metacognitive, affective and social. Metacognitive strategies allow learners to control their own cognition; that is, learners can coordinate their own learning processes by using study habits such as centering, arranging, planning and evaluating. Affective strategies help regulate emotions, motivations and attitudes. Social strategies help students to learn through interaction with others. Indirect strategies are useful in virtually all language learning situations and are applicable to all four language skills: listening, reading, speaking and writing. 2.2.3 Characteristics of Language Learning Strategies Clouston (1997) maintains that the terminology is given differently by researchers, some use the terms learner strategies (Wendin Rubin, 1987), others learning strategies (OMalley Chamot, 1990; Chamot OMalley, 1994), and others still use language learning strategies (Oxford, 1990a, 1996), but there are a number of fundamental characteristics in the commonly acknowledged analysis of LLS. First, learners generate LLS which are steps taken by learners of the language. Second, LLS improve language learning and facilitate enlarge language competency, as feedback in the learners skills in listening, speaking, reading or writing the L2 or FL. Third, LLS might be able to be seen (behaviours, steps, techniques, etc.) or unseen (thoughts, mental processes). Four, LLS engage information and memory (vocabulary knowledge, grammar rules, etc.). Reading the LLS literature, additional aspects of LLS are less consistently acknowledged. Oxford (1990a) and others such as Wenden and Rubin (1987) distinguish an aspiration for control and independence of learning on the part of the learner all the way through LLS. Cohen (1990) persists that only mindful strategies are LLS, and that there must be a selection about the part of the learner. Strategy transferring from one language or language skill to another is an associated purpose of LLS, as Pearson (1988) and Skehan (1989) have argued. In her teacher-oriented text, Oxford sums up her opinion of LLS by citing twelve vital qualities. Additionally, she states that LLS: let learners become more self-directed enlarge the responsibilities of language teachers are problem-oriented include many points of view, not just the cognitive can be educated are changeable are manipulated by a wide range of factors (Oxford, 1990a, p. 9) 2.2.4 Factors Influencing Strategy Choice There are several factors which affect the second language learner with regard to types of strategies she or he chooses to use. Oxford (1994) concluded available research on how the

Oedipus :: essays research papers

In ancient Greece, the people believed that the gods ruled their lives and controlled their destiny. Their emphasis on fate was shown in their plays. This stands true to Oedipus, he could not c0ontrol his fate. Fate kept Oedipus alive through a murder attempt and to kill his father, and to marry his mother. When Oedipus was born his father was so afraid of the prophecy that he gave his son away to be killed. The will of the gods protected Oedipus and found two people to raise him. If the gods didn’t control the lives of these people, Oedipus would surely be dead. Fate kept him alive to fulfill his prophecy. Oedipus was put in a situation where he couldn’t protect himself, but was still able to overcome it. Oedipus is now older and leaves the people whom he thinks is his parents. While traveling he runs into a stranger. He gets into an argument with this stranger and kills him. The stranger turned out to be the king, and also his father. With the king away a sphinx shows up and causes mischief. Oedipus answers the riddle correctly and with it the sphinx leaves. Because of this Oedipus is given the throne. Fate has kept him alive and given him the chance to kill his father and overtake the thrown. Now that he is king, he meets the old queen and falls madly in love with her. He marries her and he has two children, who in all reality are actually his half sisters. Oedipus has no way of knowing that his wife is actually his mother. Just when it had seemed to Oedipus his life was becoming fulfilled, he runs into a blind prophet who explains why the city is having such problems. Slowly but surely Oedipus’ fate comes back to haunt him. It begins with the burning question of, why is the city is undergoing such terrible plagues? The whole town seems to be under a curse from the gods and Oedipus wants to know why.

Adam Smith and Karl Marx Essay

Adam Smith and Karl Marx Modern political economic theory and philosophy can be greatly attributed to the works of two men who seemingly held polar opposite views on the subject. Adam Smith, a Scottish philosopher, published his most well known work An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations in 1776 and is most often associated with the ideas and principles of the political economic system known as Capitalism. At the other end of the spectrum is Karl Marx; the German philosopher most often associated with Communism and the author (or co-author) of The Communist Manifesto. This paper seeks to discuss the core differences in their respective political economic philosophies with regards to what economic value is and what the role of government should be in their versions of political economy. This will conclude with the argument that while Smith's work had laid the foundation for modern economic philosophy, it was Marx who would ultimately leave the most significant impression upon the world with his revolutionary ideas. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (commonly abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations) is considered to be the first full treatment on the study of Economics. This work essentially lays the foundation for the economic system known as Capitalism. Interestingly enough, Capitalism was a term first brought into the public debate, somewhat pejoratively, by Karl Marx himself in describing a â€Å"capitalist† as a private owner of capital or the means or production. (â€Å"Capitalism† (Wikipedia), 2008). A consensus definition of this idea is an economic system based on private individual ownership of property in which the distribution of goods is determined freely by competing market forces and investments are made by individuals. (â€Å"Capitalism† (Merriam-Webster), 2008). In a Capitalist society, individuals are free to own property and invest their capital in the pursuit of profit with relatively limited influence or barriers from the government. The Wealth of Nations was organized into five books of several chapters each. The first two books examine the fundamentals of the market system and include explanations relating to the role of labor, the nature of capital and markets, and the motives people have for entering into the market system. The third book is mostly an historical examination of the economics in ancient societies. The fourth book is the core of Smith's argument for the capitalist society and it in these chapters that Smith lays out the core arguments for the limited role of government that is required for long term economic success. The fifth book deals primarily with government spending, revenues and taxation. The Communist Manifesto was much more a call to action than it was a treatise on economics and is a much shorter work than Smith's The Wealth of Nations. Marx also published a very thorough (and denser) economic examination known as Das Kapital in 1867. The conclusions reached in that and other works would underpin the concepts found in The Communist Manifesto. It is not inaccurate to say that Communism is in many ways the opposite of Capitalism. In The Communist Manifesto, Marx and co-author Friedrich Engels listed 10 attributes of an ideal Communist society. The first one lays out the primary condition: â€Å"Abolition of property in land and application of all rents of land to public purposes. † (Marx & Engels, 2006, p. 32) This effectively describes state-ownership and control of all capital and the means of the production made for the benefit of all in a classless society. Communism espouses the idea that the economy should function for the greater good of all society and not merely act as a tool to enrich the ‘bourgeois† or ruling classes. As the title would indicate, The Communist Manifesto lays out the purpose and reasoning for the existence of the Communist party that was developing across Europe in that time. In the prologue, Marx and Engels state the books purpose: It is high time that Communists should openly, in the face of the whole world, publish their views, their aims, their tendencies, and meet this nursery tale of the Specter of Communism with a Manifesto of the party itself. Marx & Engels, 2006, p. 2) The chief disagreement between Capitalists and Communists is who or what is entitled to ownership and the means of production. In chapter one of the second book of The Wealth of Nations, Smith defined capital as the stock (read: assets or money) that a person does not immediately consume for which the owner expects to derive a f uture profit. (Smith, 1909) This of course implies that the individual has possession and ownership of the capital item in the first place. Marx bestows a social aspect upon what capital is in The Communist Manifesto. Marx stated that capital is a â€Å"collective product? nly by the united action of all members of society, can it be set in motion. Capital is therefore not a personal, it is a social power. † (Marx & Engels, 2006, p. 23) In other words, capital belongs to all of the people that are needed to not only produce it, but to provide a reason for its value. One thing that Marx and Smith seems to have agreed upon is something economists call the Labor Theory of Value. While they would ultimately come to different conclusions on the use of the value, the basic assumption is this theory is that value is ultimate derived in an object from the labor necessary to produce it. â€Å"Labor Theory†, 2008) In chapter 5 of book I of The Wealth of Nations, Smith argues tha t â€Å"the real price of everything? is the toil and trouble of acquiring it. † (Smith, 1909, p. 36) Smith distinguishes this from the nominal value of an item that can vary based on market forces; he holds that the real value is constant in relation to the labor that it used in its production. Smith argues in the following chapter that there are three components to the price of an item: the labor needed to produce it, the â€Å"rent of the land† or resources needed to make it, and the â€Å"profit of stock† that compensates the investor for risking his resources. In Das Kapital, Marx also recognizes the labor component of any item in the first chapter. He states that any commodity has a use-value and an exchange value that is derived from the labor needed to produce it. (Marx, 2000) Marx however viewed the â€Å"profit of stock† as the ability of the capitalist to exploit the wage laborers out of the surplus value of the things they create because of their control over the means of production. The role of government in relation to the economic system is a central theme of how ultimately successful the economic system would become. One of Smith's core arguments to the success of capitalism is summarized in his most famous metaphor of the â€Å"invisible hand† found in Chapter 2 of Book IV in The Wealth of Nations: By preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign industry, he intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention. Nor is it always the worse for the society that it was no part of it. By pursuing his own interest he frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it. (Smith, 1909, p. 351-352) Smith argued that in a fair and free market economic system, producers will act in their own self-interest to maximize their profits. As profits increased, competitors would come about seeking to obtain a share of the profits, and would thus drive down prices through this competition. The result was more efficiency and productivity that would lead to the long term benefit of all of society. He was against any government action that would serve to disrupt this natural balance such as trade restrictions, wage laws, and industry regulation. Smith essentially believed that the more the government stayed out of the way, the better off society would be as a whole. In The Communist Manifesto, Marx makes an argument for an entirely stateless society. â€Å"Political power† he states, â€Å"? is merely the organized power of one class for oppressing another. † (Marx & Engels, 2006, p. 3) A common theme of The Communist Manifesto is the struggle between different classes of society, to which Marx simplifies to a clash between the â€Å"bourgeois† and the â€Å"proletariats†. Marx argues that â€Å"The essential condition for the existence, and for the sway of the bourgeois class, is the formation and augmentation of capital; the condition for ca pital is wage-labor. † (Marx & Engels, 2006, p. 19) Marx held the belief that in a pure Communistic society, there would be no classes, and that the government would out of necessity dominate and control the means of production in the economy. The legacy and impact of Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations was felt throughout Europe shortly after its publication. In England in particular, the British prime ministers sought policies that were attributed to what they had learned in Smith's book including a new commercial treaty with France, customs reform, and a change in fiscal policy that resulted in lower debt and government spending. Government's throughout Europe also began to realize the fallacy of the artificial trade barriers erected between the different countries; so much so that they would prefer to trade with their American colonies more often than their own neighbors. West, 1990) Smith's greatest impact is perhaps the academic contribution to the study of economics. Before The Wealth of Nations, there really was nothing of the sort that so thoroughly examined the fundamentals of economics. Nearly every economist after Smith, including Karl Marx, would use The Wealth of Nations as a primary source and base their argument s off of Smith's suppositions. Marx's influence on the world however was far from an academic exercise. The violent revolution that Marx predicted would need to occur in order for the proletariats to overthrow the bourgeois did indeed occur in Russia during the â€Å"Red October† of 1917. The ruling aristocracy of Russia's Czarists came to an end at the hands of Vladimir Lenin's Bolsheviks. This would lead to the formation of the communist Soviet Union. During the revolution, the Bolsheviks seized all the private property around the country, gave control of all the factories to the government, nationalized all the banks, seized all of the Church's properties, and declared that they would not honor any foreign debts. Thus the first real attempt at Communism took the form of the Soviet Union; symbolized by the worker's sickle and hammer on the flag. â€Å"October Revolution†, 2008) The actions of the Soviet Union would go on to inspire many other Eastern countries to attempt their own versions of Communism; all consistent with the principles Marx envisioned in The Communist Manifesto. The resulting conflict of economic fundamentals between these Communist entities and the more Capitalist economies of Western Europe and the United States would spark conflict throu ghout much of the 20th century. References capitalism. (2008) In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia Retrieved December 17, 2008, from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Capitalism capitalism. (2008). In Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Retrieved December 17, 2008, from http://www. merriam-webster. com/dictionary/capitalism labor theory of value. (2008) In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia Retrieved December 17, 2008 from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Labor_theory Marx, K (2000) Das Kapital Gateway Edition, Washington, DC, Regnery Publishing, Inc Marx, K & Engels, F (2006) The Communist Manifesto, New York, Penguin Books October Revolution. 2008) In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia Retrieved December 17, 2008, from http http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/October_ Revolution Smith, A (1909) Harvard Classics: An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, New York, P F Collier and Son West, E (1990) Adam Smith's Revolution, Past and Present. Adam Smith's Legacy: His thought in our time. Retrieved December 17, 2008 from http://www. adamsmith . org/images/uploads/publications /ADAM_SMITH_Legacy. pdf

Film Summary - Dead Poets Society essays

Film Summary - Dead Poets Society essays Sometimes in life people can come along and touch our lives in unexpected ways. This was the case with Mr. Keating and the boys in the movie "Dead Poets Society". He taught the boys so many lessons that they would have never learned from any other teacher. By looking at scenes from the movie, and lines from the works of Ralph Waldo Emerson and Walt Whitman, we can see just how important the lessons were that Keating was trying to teach the boys. Mr. Keating reminded them to seize each day and cherish them dearly. From the very first day that Mr. Keating had walked into the classroom you could already see that he had an original method of teaching. He came into class whistling, and then proceeded to take the boys outside the classroom to read them a poem, and announced that they can call him 'Captain O' Captain'. His first important lesson was "Carpe Diem", which means seize the day. He also told them to "gather the roses while ye may", because one day you are going to die. He then took them to the showcase to show them pictures of former alumni who were once where they were standing, but they are now dead. He was trying to tell them that everyday opportunities await us and we must decide whether to take a chance, or play it safe. He encouraged them to take risks, for nothing is gained without them. This idea is related with something Ralph Waldo Emerson once said : "It was a high counsel that I once heard given to a young person 'always do what you are afraid to do'". Another great mind, Whitman, once said in the poem, "Song of Myself", "I celebrate myself, and sing myself." I think what they were all trying to say is that you have to love your self, and live for each and every moment while we still can. Besides "Carpe Diem", Keating also taught the boys to "walk their own way." One of the most important lessons that Keating taught the boys was to be an individual no matter what anyone else tells them. This took place in ...

Income and Wealth Distribution Essay Essays

Income and Wealth Distribution Essay Essays Income and Wealth Distribution Essay Essay Income and Wealth Distribution Essay Essay Globalisation refers to the process of increased integration between different countries and economies and the increased impact of international influences on all aspects of life and economic activity. Globalisation has been integrated into the Australian economy; it has embraced the global economy and pursued policies to integrate its economy with those of its region and around the world. China is now moving from a planned economy to an increasingly market base economy now being the world’s third largest economy with increasing globalisation. Strategies such as the open door policy, trade policy, microeconomic policies, welfare and the environment policy and the macro policies have directed China into becoming more Globalised; recent high growth performance has led to a rapid economic development. The Open door policy is a statement that reaffirmed the principle that all countries should have equal access to any Chinese port open to trade. In China it was adopted towards foreign trade and investment, with Special Economic Zones (SEZ’s) established in the southern and eastern coastal provinces of China. These zones attracted foreign investment and enterprises through a range of incentives. Trade in exports and important grew from 10% of GDP in 1978 to 36% in 1996. For China the importance of foreign capital lay in trade and access to overseas markets transfers of Western technology, and the receipt of management and marketing skills from MNC’s. China has introduced a ‘One child policy’ in order to sustain China’s population growth and improve China’s economic performance. In order to achieve growth in GDP, it must be greater than the population therefore they have to reduce the population to achieve this. Agricultural reforms between 1978 and 1994 involved the abandonment of the commune system and its replacement of the Household Responsibility System. This new system led to dramatic increases in food production and surplus income was invested in privately run own and village enterprises responsible for light manufacturing of industrial goods. China uses monetary and fiscal policies as counter cyclical tools designed to exploit economic opportunities or minimise risks to the economy. As China becomes more integrated in to the economy it becomes more vulnerable to external ‘shocks’ and movements in the international business cycle. The overall macro picture is one of the increasing strength in economic activity, and rising inflation as a consequence; keeping economic growth at 8%. The CPI increased 1. 5% in January 2010 and its forecast to increase a further 3% in 2010. Some commentators believe that this is not a concern because much of the increase in the CPI has been as a result of food price increases caused by poor weather in 2009. Macroeconomic tools must be used to boost domestic investment and consumption, as export seems weak as a result of the recession. The trade and investment policy was put in place to increase the exports and investment, as it is a major part of China’s economy. Export led policies have contributed strongly to development and living standards. Chinas exports in 2009 predictably suffered as the national’s large markets fell into recession. While this posed a significant challenge it gave china an opportunity to restructure. The sudden stall in economic growth was not caused by restrictive government policies but a result of insufficient growth models and unbalanced economic structure. An 11th five-year plan was implemented in 2005 to achieve a general trade balance and could either decrease exports or increase imports. China has sustained average rates of economic growth of between 6% and 8% for the past two decades. This rapid rate of economic growth has led to rapid resource use and environmental degradation. China is therefore experiencing sever environmental problems associated with resource depletion and environmental degradation. The Chinese government commissioned the OECD to conduct a study of the environment in 2007. This report found that unless pollution is controlled, by 2020 it would cause 600,000 premature deaths in urban areas and 20m cases of respiratory illness per year. The report also found that up to 7% of China’s annual GDP is lost because of pollution, and this could rise to 13% of GDP if stronger environmental laws are implemented and enforced. The Chinese government has begun to recognise and address the environmental problems that have emerged because of rapid economic growth and industrialisation. Targets have been set for pollution levels and there is a policy to move away from reliance of coal fired power generators to use of hydroelectric and nuclear power. A market has also been established for tradable emission permits, which gives firms an inventive to reduce their pollution levels by trading excess rights in a market. China’s impressive growth performance has not benefited all provinces equally. Large geographic disparities in income remain across provinces. There are two bases of differences. The first is the per capita incomes are higher in urban areas in the east and south of China compared to the rural areas in the north and south. The second is the per capita incomes are higher in the southern coastal provinces of China compared to the north, and in the eastern coastal provinces, compared to the western provinces. China is one of the few countries in the world performing well overall in the indicators for the Millennium Development Goals. Yet in recent decades, China has shown large disparities in economic and social outcomes between coastal and inland regions, a trend that reflects the differences between urban and rural areas. Coastal areas have consistently experiences faster economic growth because they benefit from their proximity to the Special Economic Zones such as Shanghai, where employment and income opportunities are greatest. The bulk of national income is concentrated in metropolitan and coastal regions as seen by the average growth of 13% five times the level of north-western regions.

Persuasive Memo Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Persuasive Memo - Research Paper Example After a lot of reflection and consultation, I feel the company should preserve the surroundings by ensuring that water released into the environment prior to manufacturing is fully treated, which is a low cost program for Boston Beers and will reduce on water pollution. The following is a discussion on how it will benefit the community and the company. Concerns in the Community Resources such as clean water and air are getting more elusive daily, both in the community we operate within and in the world over. In Boston, Massachusetts, one of the major problems faced is water pollution (USEPA, 2013). Some members of the public continue to raise concerns over the frequent pollution of their primary water sources, water that they use for drinking, domestic consumption and industrial uses, among other things (USEPA, 2013). Often, members of the public have articulated that unclean water infiltrates their water lines, causing the water supplied to be unusable, especially domestically. In a study conducted, it was discovered that on the pollution index, water pollution in the Boston area went as high as 35.71% (MassDep, 2012). The study was based on water collected from beaches, rivers and residential areas. The beach waters were voted most polluted owing to the quantity of chemical effluent discovered on testing the samples collected from them (NRDC, n.d.). Apart from chemicals, the waters generally consisted of other wastes such as plastics and sewage. This has raised major concerns over the measures taken by the relevant parties in ensuring access to clean and usable water in the community. Where Boston Beers Comes in Boston Beers Company has a role to play in ensuring reduction in the level of water pollution in the environs of the company. The company is not solely to blame for water pollution. Even so, there are several reasons as to why the Boston Beers ought to be at the front line in making efforts to reduce water pollution. They are as listed. The samples of water that underwent testing, especially water from rivers, was high in brewery effluents. Brewery effluents are rich in nitrogen, carbohydrates, and cleaning reagents (Massachusetts Ports Authority, 2013). These are some of the wildest and most common water pollutants and are notorious for reducing oxygen in the water and consequently a rapid depletion in plant and animal life. It also leads to many avoidable ailments in the community that stem from consuming contaminated water. Secondly, Boston Beers Company performed poorly on the rating scales for measures against water pollution (USEPA, 2012). The company’s performance reflects in community’s opinions. As far as the community is concerned, Boston Beers is not doing enough to protect the environment against water pollution. This fault needs to be dealt with promptly and in the best means available. Finally, Kim Morotta of the MillerCoors once stated, â€Å"Without water, there is no beer†. Polluted water is rendered unusable for consumption and production (Massachusetts Ports Authority, 2013). As a company that is highly dependent on a steady flow of water, which is one of the primary ingredients, there is need for Boston Beers to participate actively in guaranteeing a steady flow of water. The Program and Implementation As earlier stated, the aim of the program is to protect the en

On Double Standards Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

On Double Standards - Essay Example Men are expected to be more aggressive while women are supposed to be more submissive and reserved. It is readily accepted that some things are naturally "men's" things while some are "women's." For example, a man who is attracted to a pretty woman can always ask her out. However, a woman asking a man out is less acceptable. The commencement of a relationship is seen as the "right" of every guy while ladies can only accept. The essay will look at the different double standards based on gender. The first section will look at the most common double standards present in the society. Afterwards, the essay will expose the arguments for and against double standard. It will also contain various citations from different authors and social scientists who are experts in this topic. In the end, I will give my own opinion regarding the essay. The fate of an individual is undeniably almost always determined by sexuality. It is irrefutable that the society where are living in has this preconceived notion of what is right and what is acceptable action for each gender. Currently, society has readily accepted that some things are naturally "men's" things while some are "women's." The presence of double standard is an undeniable fact.